Nonpoint Source Water Pollution: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions, Summaries of Construction

Download Nonpoint Source Water Pollution: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions and more Summaries Construction in PDF only on Docsity! Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-1 1 Overview of the Nonpoint Source Problem By S.A. Dressing, D.W. Meals, J.B. Harcum, and J. Spooner 1.1 Definition of a Nonpoint Source Nonpoint sources of water pollution are both diffuse in nature and difficult to define. Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution can generally be defined as the pollution of waters caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As water moves over or through soil, it picks up and carries away natural contaminants and pollutants associated with human activity, finally depositing the contaminants into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and ground waters. Habitat alteration, such as the removal of riparian vegetation, and hydrologic modification, such as damming a river or installing bridge supports across the mouth of a bay, can cause adverse effects on the biological and physical integrity of surface waters and are also treated as nonpoint sources of pollution. Atmospheric deposition, the wet and dry deposition of airborne pollutants onto the land and into waterbodies, is also considered to be nonpoint source pollution. At the federal level, the term nonpoint source is defined to mean any source of water pollution that does not meet the legal definition of point source in Section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act (CWA): The term “point source” means any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include agricultural storm water discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture. The distinction between nonpoint sources and diffuse point sources is sometimes unclear. Although diffuse runoff is usually treated as nonpoint source pollution, runoff that enters and is discharged from conveyances, as described above, is treated as a point source discharge and is subject to the federal permit requirements under Section 402 of the Clean Water Act. Stormwater can be classified as a point or nonpoint source of pollution. Stormwater is classified as a point source when it is regulated through the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Stormwater Program. An NPDES stormwater permit is required for medium and large municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s) of incorporated areas and counties with populations of more than 100,000, certain industrial activities, and construction activities disturbing five ac or more. An NPDES permit is also required for small MS4s in “urbanized areas” and small construction activities disturbing between one and five acres (ac) of land. The NPDES permitting authority may also require operators of small MS4s not in urbanized areas and small construction activities disturbing less than one ac to obtain an NPDES permit based on the potential for contribution to a violation of a water quality standard. Detailed information on the NPDES Storm Water Program is available at http://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes- stormwater-program. If stormwater originates from a location that does not fall within the NPDES permit requirements, it is considered to be nonpoint source pollution (USEPA 2005). Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are also classified as point sources and regulated under the NPDES program (USEPA 2012b). Despite differing regulatory requirements, monitoring issues and concepts encountered for permitted stormwater and CAFOs are similar to those of nonpoint sources. Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-2 1.2 Extent of Nonpoint Source Problems in the United States During the last three decades, significant achievements have been made nationally in the protection and enhancement of water quality. Much of this progress, however, has resulted from controlling point sources of pollution. Pollutant loads from nonpoint sources continue to present problems for achieving water quality goals and maintaining designated uses in many parts of the United States. Nonpoint sources are generally considered the number one cause of water quality problems reported by states, tribes, and territories. Categories of nonpoint source pollution affecting waterbodies include agriculture, atmospheric deposition, channelization, construction, contaminated sediment, contaminated ground water, flow regulation, forest harvesting (silviculture), ground water loading, highway maintenance/runoff, hydrologic and habitat modification, in-place contamination, land development, land disposal, marinas, onsite disposal systems, recreational activities, removal of riparian vegetation, resource extraction, shoreline modification, streambank destabilization, and unspecified or other nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint sources can generate both conventional pollutants (e.g., nutrients, sediment) and toxic pollutants (e.g., pesticides, petroleum products). Even though nonpoint sources can contribute many of the same kinds of pollutants as point sources, these pollutants are usually generated in different timeframes, volumes, combinations, and concentrations. Pollutants from nonpoint sources are mobilized primarily during rainstorms or snowmelt. Consequently, waterborne NPS pollution is generated episodically, in contrast to the more continuous discharges of point sources of pollution. However, the adverse impacts of NPS pollution downstream from its source, or on downgradient waterbodies, can be continuous under some circumstances. For example, sediment- laden runoff that is not completely flushed out of a surface water prior to a storm can combine with storm runoff to create a continuous adverse impact; toxic pollutants carried in runoff and deposited in sediment can exert a continuous adverse impact long after a rainstorm; physical alterations to a stream course caused by runoff can have a permanent and continuous effect on the watercourse; and the chemical and physical changes caused by NPS pollution can have a continuous adverse impact on resident biota. Nutrient pollution (i.e., nitrogen [N] and phosphorus [P]) is often associated with NPS and has received increasing attention as algal blooms and resulting hypoxic or “dead” zones caused by the decay of algae have negatively affected waterbodies around the country (NOAA 2012). Various other pollutants contributed by NPS include sediment, pathogens, salts, toxic substances, petroleum products, and pesticides. Each of these pollutants, as well as habitat alteration and hydrologic modification, can have adverse effects on aquatic systems and, in some cases, on human health.  Waste from livestock, wildlife, and pets contain bacteria that contaminate swimming, drinking, and shellfishing waters, as well as oxygen-demanding substances that deplete dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in aquatic systems. Suspended sediment generated by construction, overgrazing, logging, and other activities in riparian areas, along with particles carried in runoff from cropland, highways, and bridges, reduces sunlight to aquatic plants, smothers fish spawning areas, and clogs filter feeders and fish gills.  Salts from irrigation water become concentrated at the soil surface through evapotranspiration and are carried off in return flow from surface irrigation. Road salts from deicing accumulate along the edges of roads and are often carried via storm sewer systems to surface waters. Salts cause the soil structure to break down, decrease water infiltration, and decrease the productivity of cropland. Salts can also be toxic to plants at high concentrations. Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 Table 1-2. National probable sources contributing to impairments (excerpted from USEPA 2016) Probable Source Group Size of Assessed Waters with Probable Sources of Impairments Ri ve rs an d St re am s (M ile s) La ke s, Re se rv oi rs , an d Po nd s ( Ac re s) Ba ys an d Es tu ar ies (S qu ar e M ile s) Co as ta l S ho re lin e (M ile s) Oc ea n an d Ne ar Co as ta l ( Sq ua re M ile s) W et lan ds (A cr es ) Gr ea t L ak es S ho re lin e (M ile s) Gr ea t L ak es O pe n W at er (S qu ar e M ile s) Agriculture 148,728 1,241,455 3,056 113 201,786 620 4,373 Construction 21,527 336,942 1 4 4 1,000 18 Habitat Alterations (Not Directly Related to Hydromodification) 66,932 273,438 2,231 33 90 Hydromodification 92,067 762,274 1,717 140 7 6,762 231 Recreational Boating And Marinas 138 38,743 789 106 8 72,320 Resource Extraction 33,873 524,820 320 32,112 Silviculture (Forestry) 40,637 162,244 0 Unspecified NPS 54,142 847,767 3,363 103 4 1,324 6 Urban-Related Runoff/Stormwater 61,984 744,646 3,086 268 379 54 99 13,867 Table 1-3. National cumulative TMDLs by pollutant (excerpted from USEPA 2016) Pollutant Group Number of TMDLs Number of Causes of Impairment Addressed Pathogens 13,263 13,572 Metals (other than Mercury) 9,955 10,153 Nutrients 6,154 7,520 Sediment 3,941 4,591 Temperature 2,305 2,315 Organic Enrichment/Oxygen Depletion 2,191 2,315 Turbidity 1,603 1,829 Pesticides 1,351 1,514 Ammonia 1,131 1,230 Algal Growth 95 103 Habitat Alterations 83 84 Oil and Grease 14 14 Many other measures and indicators of the extent of the NPS problem are also available, including the National Rivers and Streams Assessment (NRSA), under which 1,924 river and stream sites were sampled during the summers of 2008 and 2009 (USEPA 2013). This study was based on a robust, commonly used index that combines different measures of the condition of aquatic benthic macroinvertebrates. The draft report indicates that 21 percent of the nation’s river and stream length is in good biological condition, 1-5 Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 23 percent is in fair condition, and 55 percent is in poor condition (no data for 1 percent). Of the four chemical stressors assessed in this study (total P [TP], total N [TN], salinity, and acidification), it was concluded that P and N are by far the most widespread. It was found that 40 percent of the nation’s river and stream length has high1 levels of P and 28 percent has high levels of N. Poor biological condition (for macroinvertebrates) was found to be 50 percent more likely in rivers and streams with high levels of P and 40 percent more likely in rivers and streams with high levels of N. Four indicators of physical habitat condition (excess streambed sediments, riparian vegetative cover, riparian disturbance, and in-stream fish habitat) were also assessed for the study. Results indicated that poor riparian vegetative cover and high levels of riparian disturbance are the most widespread physical stressors, reported in 24 percent and 20 percent of the nation’s river and stream length, respectively. Excess levels of streambed sediments, however, were reported in 15 percent of river and stream length and were found to have a greater impact on biological condition. The study concluded that poor biological condition is 60 percent more likely in rivers and streams with excessive levels of streambed sediments. While this study was not designed to identify the sources of stressors, other research has shown that nonpoint sources are often contributors to both the chemical and physical stressors described here. The draft report was released for comment on March 25, 2013, and is currently undergoing final revision. EPA also performed a National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) to determine the ecological integrity of wetlands at regional and national scales through a statistical survey approach. Field data were collected in 2011 and a draft report was released for public comment through January 6, 2016 (USEPA 2015c). Draft findings indicate that nationally, 48% of the wetland area is in good condition, 20% is in fair condition and the remaining 32% of the area is in poor condition. The study also assessed a number of physical, chemical, and biological indicators of stress that reflect potential negative impact to wetland condition. These indicators were assigned to “low,” “moderate,” or “high” stressor levels depending on criteria established for each indicator. Of the six physical indicators, vegetation removal and hardening (e.g., pavement, soil compaction) stressors were assessed as high for 27% of wetland area nationally, while the ditching stressor was high for 23% of wetland area. Both of the chemical indicators (a heavy metal index and soil P concentration) were low for the majority of wetland area nationally, but at variable levels across the four aggregated ecoregions created for the study. A Nonnative Plant Stressor Indicator developed for NWCA was used to assess the level of biological stress in wetlands. Nationally, 61% of wetland area had low stressor levels for nonnative plants, but results varied across aggregated ecoregions. Still, other reports indicate the pervasive nature of NPS pollution and the need to document and solve the many problems it causes. For example:  Based on the sampling of over 1,000 lakes across the country in 2007, it was determined that poor lake physical habitat is the biggest problem affecting biological condition, followed by high nutrient levels (USEPA 2009). This statistical survey found that lakes with excess nutrients (i.e., a “poor” stressor condition) are two-and-a-half times more likely to have poor biological health2.  EPA’s 2012 National Coastal Condition Report noted that U.S. coastal areas are facing significant population pressures and associated higher volumes of urban nonpoint source runoff with 53 percent of the U.S. population living in coastal areas that comprise only 17 percent of the total conterminous U.S. land area (USEPA 2012a). This report rated the U.S. coasts as “fair” on a scale 1 Thresholds for high, medium and low values were set on a regional basis relative to the least-disturbed reference sites for each of the nine NRSA ecoregions.) 2 This likelihood is expressed relative to the likelihood of Poor response condition in lakes that have Not-Poor stressor condition (USEPA 2010). 1-6 Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-7 of good, fair, or poor. Dissolved inorganic P levels, one of the five components of the water quality index, was also rated “fair.”  Nonpoint sources, particularly from the agricultural areas north of the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, contribute most of the N and P loads to the Gulf of Mexico (Goolsby et al. 1999). The nitrate load to the Gulf approximately tripled from 1970 to 2000, with the greatest sources believed to be basins in southern Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio that drain agricultural land (Goolsby et al. 2001).  In 2015, the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone measured 6,474 square miles (4.14 million ac), larger than the state of Hawaii (USEPA 2015f). The greatest source of pollution causing the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico is nonpoint source runoff from agriculture. It has been estimated that corn and soybean cultivation contributes 52 percent of the N delivered to the Gulf from the Mississippi River Basin, with other cropland, manure on pasture and rangeland, and forest contributing 14, 5, and 4 percent, respectively (Alexander et al. 2008). It was also estimated that animal manure on pasture and rangeland, corn and soybeans, other cropland, and forest contribute 37, 25, 18, and 8 percent of the P, respectively. 1.3 Major Categories of Nonpoint Source Pollution 1.3.1 Agriculture The 2012 Census of Agriculture reported that there are 2,109,303 farms covering 914,527,657 acres (ac) in the U.S. (USDA-NASS 2014). Approximately 1.5 million farms grew crops on 390 million ac, and there were about 415 million ac of permanent pasture and range on nearly 1.2 million farms. Woodland covered 77 million acres, while other agricultural features (e.g., farmsteads, buildings, livestock facilities, ponds, and roads) accounted for 32 million ac of farmland. Animal agriculture included nearly 90 million cattle and calves on approximately 900 thousand farms, 66 million hogs and pigs on 63 thousand farms, and 1.5 billion broilers on 42 thousand farms. The primary agricultural nonpoint source pollutants are inorganic and organic nutrients (N and P), sediment, organic matter and pathogens from animal waste, salts, and agricultural chemicals. Agriculture and agricultural activities can also have direct impacts on aquatic habitat. N and P are applied to agricultural land in several different forms and come from various sources, including commercial fertilizer, manure from animal production facilities, municipal and industrial treatment plant sludge and/or effluent applied to agricultural lands, legumes and crop residues, irrigation water, and atmospheric deposition. Land disturbance and clearing for agricultural operations can increase sediment loadings in runoff and surface waters. In addition, increased instream flows resulting from this land clearing can also contribute to accelerated stream bank erosion. Sediment loss and runoff are especially high if it rains or if high winds occur while the soil is being disturbed or soon afterward. Animal waste includes the fecal and urinary wastes of livestock and poultry; process water; and the feed, bedding, litter, and soil from confined animal facilities. Runoff water and process wastewater from confined animal facilities can contain oxygen-demanding substances; N, P, and other nutrients; organic solids; salts; bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms; and sediment. Large amounts of salt can be added to agricultural soils by irrigation water that has a natural base load of dissolved mineral salts, regardless of whether the water is supplied by ground water or surface water Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-10 Flow alteration describes a category of hydromodification activities that results in either an increase or a decrease in the usual supply of fresh water to a stream, river, wetland, lake, or estuary. Flow alterations include diversions, withdrawals, and impoundments. In rivers and streams, flow alteration can also result from transportation embankments, tide gates, sluice gates, weirs, and the installation of undersized culverts. Levees and dikes are also flow alteration structures. Channel modification can deprive wetlands and estuarine shorelines of enriching sediment; change the ability of natural systems to absorb hydraulic energy and filter pollutants from surface waters; increase transport of suspended sediment to coastal and near-coastal waters during high-flow events; increase instream water temperature; and accelerate the discharge of pollutants (Sherwood et al. 1990). Channelization can also increase the risk of flooding by causing higher flows during storm events (USEPA 2007). Hydromodification often diminishes the suitability of instream and riparian habitat for fish and wildlife through reduced flushing, lowered DO levels, saltwater intrusion, interruption of the life cycles of aquatic organisms, and loss of streamside vegetation. Dams, for example, can change water temperatures and impact fish spawning (USEPA 2007). 1.3.5 Mining Much of the environmental damage caused by mining occurred prior to passage of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977, when standards for environmental protection during mining operations and the means for reclaiming abandoned mines were generally lacking (Demchak et al. 2004). For example, past practices used to mine silver (Ag) and gold (Au) from low-grade ore generated large volumes of waste material (spoil) that were dumped at the heads of drainages, potentially serving as sources of sediment to streams as they weathered over time (Sidle and Sharma 1996). Mercury (Hg) was used to separate Au and Ag from ore in the past and is contained in waste piles from the amalgamation process (Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1993). Numerous pollutants are released from coal and ore mining. Acid drainage from coal mining contains sulfates, acidity, heavy metals, ferric hydroxide, and silt (USEPA/USDOI 1995, Stewart and Skousen 2003). The heavy metals released from mining activities include Ag, arsenic (As), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), Hg, lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), and zinc (Zn) (Horowitz et al. 1993). While modern-day mining practices are much improved, there remains a need to address the environmental impacts of past mining practices in many locations. For example, two Section 319 National Nonpoint Source Monitoring Program (NNPSMP) projects were designed to monitor the effects of restoration activities on water quality in areas impacted by past mining activities. In Pennsylvania, monitoring was carried out to determine the effectiveness of remediation efforts designed to counter the impact of abandoned anthracite mines on the aquatic ecosystem and designated beneficial uses of Swatara Creek (Cravotta et al. 2010). Impairments were caused both by acid mine drainage and losses of surface water to the abandoned underground mines. In Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula efforts are underway to address problems caused by fine-grained stamp sands from historic copper mining operations (Rathbun 2007). These sands erode into streams and wetlands and degrade fish and macroinvertebrate communities by smothering aquatic habitat features and leaching copper into the water column. While remediation efforts often result in water quality improvements, solutions are sometimes more complicated than initially envisioned. For example, acid mine drainage resulting from Cu mining in the Ducktown Mining District of Tennessee introduced significant amounts of toxic trace metals into tributaries of the Ocoee River (Lee et al. 2008). Downstream neutralization of acidic water resulted in the precipitation of iron hydroxides and the sorption of trace metals to the suspended particulates which were then transported downstream to a lake where they settled on the lake bottom. This sediment layer contains Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-11 elevated levels of Fe, Al, Mn, and trace metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, and Co. Study results have shown that even a modest decrease in pH of the sediment pore water from 6.4 to 5.9 caused significant release of trace metals to the environment, creating a risk of ingestion by bottom-dwelling aquatic species. 1.3.6 Forestry Forestry operations can degrade water quality in several ways, with sediment, organic debris, nutrients, and silvicultural chemicals the major pollutants of concern (Binkley et al. 1999, Michael 2003, Ryan and Grant 1991). Construction of forest roads and yarding areas, as well as log dragging during harvesting, can accelerate erosion and sediment deposition in streams, thus harming instream habitats (Ryan and Grant 1991, USEPA 2015a). Road construction and road use are the primary sources of NPS pollution on forested lands, contributing up to 90 percent of the total sediment from forestry operations (USEPA 2015a). Removal of overstory riparian shade can increase stream water temperatures (USEPA 2015a). Harvesting operations can leave slash and other organic debris to accumulate in waterbodies, resulting in depleted dissolved oxygen (DO) and altered instream habitats. Fertilizer applications can increase nutrient levels and accelerate eutrophication, whereas pesticide applications can lead to adverse wildlife and habitat impacts (Brown 1985). Herbicides can be applied with reduced or shorter-term environmental impact, however, in situations where macroinvertebrate recolonization is rapid and herbicide concentrations are low and short-lived because of acidic soil and water conditions (Michael 2003). A review of forest fertilization studies around the world concluded that, in general, peak stream concentrations of nitrate-N increase after forest fertilization, with a few studies reporting concentrations as high as 10-25 milligrams (mg) nitrate (NO3)-N/L (lithium) (Binkley et al. 1999). In addition, the highest reported annual average NO3-N concentration found was 4 mg N/L. The higher nitrate concentrations were related to repeated fertilization, use of ammonium nitrate instead of urea, and fertilization of N-saturated hardwood forests. It was found that phosphate fertilization could create peak concentrations exceeding 1 mg P/L, but annual averages remain below 0.25 mg P/L. A study of the effects of fertilizer addition to an artificially drained North Carolina pine plantation resulted in the flushing out of all excess nutrients by three major rain events within 47 days of application (Beltran et al. 2010). Researchers considered this to be a worst-case scenario, however, noting that N concentrations did not exceed EPA’s drinking water standard of 10 mg N/L and loading rates returned to pretreatment or lower levels as soon as 90 days after fertilization. Still, the results point out the importance of timing of fertilizer applications to reduce potential losses. The use of forest lands for application of biosolids and animal wastes has received increased attention in the literature, reflecting concerns that such applications could increase nutrient loadings from these lands. For example, a study designed to evaluate the potential for using loblolly pine stands for poultry litter application in the South indicated that moderate application rates (~20 kilograms [kg] N/ hectare (ha), ~92 kg P/ha) can increase tree growth with minimal impacts to water quality (Friend et al. 2006). Higher application rates (800 kg N/ha, 370 kg P/ha), however, resulted in soil water nitrate levels exceeding 10 mg N/L and P buildup in soils. A study examining surface runoff of N and P in a small, forested watershed in Washington yielded no evidence of direct runoff of N or P from biosolids into surface waters (Grey and Henry 2002). This study illustrated the importance of best management practices (BMPs) as N-based application rates were used and a 20-meter (m) buffer was established around the creek and all ephemeral drainages. Only 40 percent of the watershed received nutrient applications (700 kg N/ha, 500 kg P/ha) and the acidic soils were expected to reduce P mobility. Before biosolids application, however, there was no relationship between discharge and nitrate-N concentration, but within nine months of application discharge and nitrate-N concentrations were positively correlated, indicating the potential for impacts to water quality with continued biosolids applications. Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-12 1.3.7 Construction Stormwater runoff from construction activities can have a significant impact on water quality (USEPA 2015g). As stormwater flows over a construction site, it can pick up pollutants like sediment, debris, and chemicals and transport these to a nearby storm sewer system or directly to a river, lake, or coastal water. Although construction activities are generally temporary at any given location, polluted runoff from construction sites can harm or kill fish and other wildlife. Sedimentation can destroy aquatic habitat, high volumes of runoff can cause stream bank erosion, and debris can clog waterways. Potential pollutants associated with construction activities include sediment, suspended solids, nutrients, chemicals, petroleum products, fuel, fertilizers, pesticides, and pH modifying contaminants (e.g., bulk cement) (WA DOE 2014). The variety of pollutants present and the severity of their effects depend on the nature of the construction activity, the physical characteristics of the construction site, and the proximity of surface waters to the construction area. Soil loss rates from construction sites can be 1,000 times the average of natural soil erosion rates and 20 times that from agricultural lands (Keener et al. 2007). Even with control measures, waters discharged from disturbed lands often contain higher than desired concentrations of suspended solids, particularly the finer particles (Przepiora, et al. 1998). Ehrhart et al. (2002) investigated the effects of sedimentation basin discharges on receiving streams at three construction sites, reporting that stream sediment concentrations increased significantly with high levels persisting for at least 100 m below the basin discharge. A two- year study of runoff from three residential construction sites in Wisconsin showed that pollutant loads (suspended solids and nutrients) from these sites are variable and site dependent (Daniel et al. 1979). Compared to an adjacent watershed in dairy agriculture, however, the annual yield of suspended solids from the construction sites was considerably higher (19.2 vs. < 1 metric ton/ha). Similar differences in total nutrient yields were also observed between the construction and agricultural sites. The 10-year Jordan Creek (CT) NNPSMP project compared stormwater runoff from three urban watersheds using a paired-watershed design (Clausen 2007). The watersheds were: a developed watershed serving as the control, a watershed being developed using traditional practices and subdivision requirements, and a watershed developed using a BMP approach (e.g., alternative driveway pavement treatments). The volume of stormwater runoff from the BMP watershed decreased (-97%) during the construction period compared to the control watershed while stormwater runoff from the traditional watershed increased compared to the control watershed. The concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS), NO3-N, NH3-N, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and TP increased during construction in the BMP watershed, with peaks associated with turfgrass development. Because of the decreased stormwater runoff volume, however, exports from the BMP watershed generally did not change during the construction period, except for TSS and TP which increased and Zn which decreased. In the traditional watershed, concentrations either did not change or, for TKN and TP, declined during construction. Because of the increased stormwater runoff volume, however, exports from the traditional site increased for all variables during construction despite the observation that the erosion and sediment controls used during construction appeared to work. Chemical pollutants, such as paints, acids for cleaning masonry surfaces, cleaning solvents, asphalt products, soil additives used for stabilization, pollutants in wash water from concrete mixers, and concrete-curing compounds, can also be carried in runoff from construction sites. When eroded sediment is transported to nearby surface waters, it can carry with it fertilizers, pesticides, fuels, and other contaminants and substances that readily attach to soil particles (Keener et al. 2007). Pollutants attached Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects Chapter 1 1-15 1.5 References Alexander, R.B., R.A. 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