Organizational Theory: Human Relations, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, and TQM, Lecture notes of Philosophy

Download Organizational Theory: Human Relations, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, and TQM and more Lecture notes Philosophy in PDF only on Docsity! 81 CHAPTER 5 CONTEMPORARY ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Chapter Overview This chapter provides an overview of a variety of theories that describe the organic organization. As administrative theory developed, theorists came to understand that theories that incorporate organizational theories and management systems would be the most effective. Management practices and systems that exist within organizational structures, to a great extent, are determined by the nature of the organization’s structure. Therefore, it seems reasonable to integrate management and organizational theories. Three types of organic theory are human relations theories, systems theories, and behavioral management systems. Learning Objectives 1. Understand how contemporary management theories differ from classical organizational theory. 2. Know the three events that served as the foundation of human relations theory. 3. Understand systems theory and the components of the police system. 4. Discuss total quality management and how it applies to modern police departments and community policing. 5. Know the various structures that are used in police departments. Chapter Outline/Lecture Notes I. Introduction Classical theory is the foundation for American police systems, yet is somewhat problematic when strictly applied. Most organizations have been classified as being mechanistic or organic. A mechanistic organization is a fairly inflexible organization characterized by hierarchy, formalization, and centralized authority. This is synonymous with classical organization theory. 82 Instructor’s Resource Manual Organic organizations are more open organizations that allow employees greater input and responsibility in decision making, especially at the lower levels of the organization. II. Human Relations Organizational Theory Human relations philosophy is management engaged in a social process that combines techniques and people to mutually benefit the organization and the employee. A. The Genesis of Human Relations Theory There are three theoretical perspectives of human relations theory; the Hawthorne experiments in Chicago, Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory of motivation, and Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. 1. Hawthorne Experiments a. Western Electric Company at the Hawthorne facility in Chicago conducted several scientific management studies from 1927 through 1932 and attempted to determine the level of light and break patterns of employee productivity. b. Final study results concluded employee job satisfaction was a result of increased involvement and concern on the part of management. c. These were the first studies to concern themselves with how employees felt about work. 2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory of motivation a. Simply put, Maslow’s study attempted to describe why people are motivated. b. There are five levels of employee needs. They are, in order, from the most basic to the most complex: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization. Once a level of need was satisfied, it was no longer a motivator. c. This meant that work has to have some level of collegiality and esteem associated with it; otherwise, once employees had enough money and job security, they would no longer be interested in their work. Chapter 5: Contemporary Organizational Theories and Management Systems 85 oriented role sets the limits for social interactions in the work environment. o Cooperation in the form of teamwork is an indispensable management practice if the organization is to survive. o Employees are diversely motivated. Satisfaction comes from job accomplishment, recognition, and participation as well as from economic or monetary rewards. o The work situation is a complex social system of interrelated elements. o Human relations management skills can be developed. These skills can be improved through training or awareness, sensitivity, and competency in coping with the human problems of organizations. 1. Participatory Management a. Participatory management is a management form that in a general sense entails allowing subordinates to participate in decision making and planning, particularly with regard to their own responsibilities and the operation of their own units. b. When subordinates’ feelings, concerns, and ideas for solutions are expressed to their supervisors and transmitted throughout the upper echelons of the organization by superiors, the process of management is improved. c. As information is interjected at one point and is transmitted upward, downward, and laterally through a linking pin network (chain of command), it allows for the free flow of information, identification of better solutions to problems, and increased morale. d. Groups are linked by several processes: communication, balance, and decision making. Communication causes the organization to function collectively toward some objective; balance is an equilibrating mechanism where parts of the system are maintained in a harmoniously structured relationship with each other; decision making is an overarching process that binds groups together. 2. Human Relations Theory and Police Administration a. There have been two periods in time where human relations theory has been applied to law enforcement: the 1970s in the community 86 Instructor’s Resource Manual relations movement and currently with decentralization and participatory management, mainstays of the community policing movement. b. Team policing is a democratic model of law enforcement and is an attempt to move to Likert’s consultative management system. In the Dayton Police Department of the 1970s, officers volunteered for small teams assigned to small geographical areas, selected their own supervisors, and were given authority to investigate crimes generally assigned to specialists. They essentially operated as autonomous police department within the larger organization. This form of policing presented problems with middle management and was eventually discarded. c. Many departments adopted various forms of human relations theory in the 1970s but eventually moved back toward a traditional organizational model due to: potential liability problems caused by control issues; police are accustomed to quasi-military organizations; citizens expect the police to respond in a “militaristic” fashion; it is impossible to operate a government organization without structure. C. Contribution and Weaknesses of the Neoclassical or Human Relations Model The main contribution of the neoclassical or human relations theory was the introduction of behavioral sciences in an integrated fashion into the theory of organization. The acceptance of the human relations philosophy was due more to the failure of the classical organizational theory than the accomplishments of the human relations movement. III. Bridging Classical and Human Relations Theories The actual structure of a police organization generally is contingent on its mission, its environment, and the composition of its work force. A. Mixed Structures 1. One of the first to investigate the mixed organizational forms was Woodward, who found that mechanistic or traditional structures were more appropriate in areas where repetitive tasks are performed, while organic systems were more appropriate for areas characterized by nonrepetitive tasks. Chapter 5: Contemporary Organizational Theories and Management Systems 87 2. Long-linked technology is a process by which individual work groups contribute a part to the total. They require more coordination and control because of the interdependence of the units involved in the total process. B. Contingency Theory 1. Contingency theory advises that organizations are embedded in an environment, and the environment places demands and pressures on the organization, resulting in change in operations and structure. 2. Organizations must be aligned at two levels: operational units must be suitable to meet environmental demands, while the overall organization, particularly the administrative structure, must be integrated into the environment. 3. Institutional theory states that organizations change not to be more effective, but to give the appearance of effectiveness. Community policing is an example. It remains questionable as to how much change is the result of contingency theory, and the level of stated change that is the result of institutional theory. IV. The Systems Model of Organizational Management The systems approach represents an elaboration or expansion of contingency theory. Systems consist of a set of interrelated parts or components that work together to achieve a set of overall objectives. A. Characteristics of an Open System 1. An open system consists of nine characteristics: environmental awareness and importation of energy and resources, conversion of energy into goods and services, outputs, cyclical character of processes, negative entropy, feedback, functional steady state or dynamic homeostasis, movement toward growth and expansion, and equifinality. a. Environmental awareness and importation of energy and resources is the belief that an organization is part of an overall environment, as seen in the contingency theory. b. Conversion of energy into goods and services is the process that occurs when an organization imports energy or resources and then converts them into some form of action. c. Outputs are the various services a police department provides to the community. 90 Instructor’s Resource Manual necessitates that officers develop partnerships with residents and engage them in problem solving. 2. Critics of traditional policing structure are calling for department to “flatten” their organization and decentralize their organization so officers are free to engage in community policing. This would contribute to police being more responsive to the community. VI. Summary Departure from the classical organizational theory began as a result of three early theories: Hawthorne experiments, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and McGregor’s Theory X and Y. These theories spawned human relations theory and thinking about how to include and motivate people in the organization. It was a turning point and substantially changed organizational thinking. Contingency theory advised that organizational arrangements and activities were contingent upon the environment and organization. It postulated that how an organization is structured varies depending on the activities, environment, and organizational constraints. It identified that organizations must have a large measure of flexibility if they are to be successful. Systems theory attempted to examine organizations as a system. These theories identified the various parts or key activities and showed the interdependency of the parts. Administrators, in essence, must consider each part as the parts contribute to the whole. For example, administrators cannot neglect inputs, outputs, etc. If one area is neglected or deficient, it will have adverse effects on other parts of the organization. An important part of systems theory is monitoring the environment and responding to environmental conditions. TQM is a contemporary theory that to some extent integrates organization and management. It is predicated on three key concepts: culture, customers, and counting. Essentially, TQM advised that administrators must mold their organizations’ culture so that it emphasizes effective response to environmental conditions. The term “customers” refers to consumers of an organization’s services. Police officers typically do not see citizens as customers, but indeed they are. Citizen perceptions of the police are very important in any community. Finally, counting refers to emphasizing the important (outcomes) rather than counting activities. The vertical structure is associated with classical organizational theory. Other structures include: matrix, horizontal, and team. Many departments, especially large departments, use a combination of these structures. These structures are implemented as chiefs and managers attempt to structure their departments so that Chapter 5: Contemporary Organizational Theories and Management Systems 91 they can better respond to problems. It is recognized that organizational structure can facilitate activities and make organizations more responsive. Key Terms contingency theory: organizations are embedded in an environment, and the environment places demands and pressures on the organization resulting in change in operation and structure conversion of energy into goods and services: process that occurs when an organization imports energy or resources and then converts them into some form of action counting: increasing the element of accountability and understanding within an organization in terms of how it operates and provides goods and services to its constituents culture: internal operating philosophy of the organization customers: clients; citizens who consume an organizations product or receive its services cyclical character of processes: nature of work and activities in organizations environmental awareness and importation of energy and resources: an organization being a part of an overall environment as seen in the contingency theory equifinality: the ability to reach a final state by a variety of paths feedback: the organization monitors the environment to gather information about environmental needs and the organization’s performance functional steady state or dynamic homeostasis: organizations function within a set range of behaviors Hawthorne experiments: conducted by the Western Electric Company in Chicago from 1927–1932, the experiments were an attempt to determine the level of illumination (light) and pattern of employee breaks that produced the highest levels of worker productivity; these experiments provided the first glimpse of human relations theory because they spurred a significant change in the relationships between management and employees as management realized that individual workers and the work group itself could have just as much impact on productivity as management horizontal structure: activities are organized around core processes and it eliminates vertical hierarchy and departmental boundaries 92 Instructor’s Resource Manual human relations philosophy: management engaged in social processes that combines techniques and people to mutually benefit the organization and employee institutional theory: organization changes not to be more effective, but to give the appearance of effectiveness long-linked technology: process of individual work groups contributing a part to the total Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory of motivation: a theory developed by Abraham Maslow that identified and describes a hierarchy of five levels of employee needs; in order, from most basic to most complex, these needs are: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization matrix structure: separate operations are decentralized across geographical areas McGregor’s Theory X: based on classical theory, this theory implies that management must constantly control, punish, and manipulate workers McGregor’s Theory Y: based on a more humane perception of people than Theory Y, this theory depicted a worker who was willing to work and failed to be productive only when management failed to provide the proper work atmosphere; this theory was widely accepted in management circles mechanistic organizations: fairly inflexible organization characterized by hierarchy, formalization, and centralized authority mixed organizational forms: mechanistic or traditional structures are more appropriate where repetitive task are performed and organic systems are more appropriate for non repetitive tasks movement toward growth and expansion: organization are constantly expanding in terms of size and scope of their boundaries negative entropy: the organization replenishes itself or stores energy or resources organic organizations: more open organizations that allow employees greater input and responsibility for decision making, especially at lower levels outputs: various services a police department provides to a community participatory management: allows subordinates to participate in decision making and planning, particularly with their own responsibilities and unit operations Chapter 5: Contemporary Organizational Theories and Management Systems 95  The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not end there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.  The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operations so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.  Argyris’s Immaturity-Maturity Theory followed McGregor’s theory and noted that people mature not only chronologically, but also emotionally and intellectually. Management must provide a work environment that is conducive to people’s maturing psychologically. 2. How does human relations theory differ from traditional or classical organizational theory? (See pages 127–134 in the text.) • Workers are viewed as whole individuals, not just as people who perform certain tasks for the organization but as people with feelings and desires that go beyond the work environment. They have families and friends, belong to many other organizations—educational organizations, religious organizations, social organizations–and have many needs which affect their job performance. • Managers are required to use their experience, intuition, and generalizations from an interdisciplinary perspective to guide them in taking action. • Higher productivity and greater human satisfaction require employee participation in the organization. • Communication is the nervous system of the organization. It provides the stimuli and feedback for action to occur. • The employee has two roles to play at work—a job-oriented role and an informal group-oriented role. The job-oriented role is that which is played in performing the organizational tasks. The informal group-oriented role sets the limits for social interactions in the work environment. • Cooperation in the form of teamwork is an indispensable management practice if the organization is to survive. 96 Instructor’s Resource Manual • Employees are diversely motivated. Satisfaction comes from job accomplishment, recognition, and participation as well as from economic or monetary rewards. • The work situation is a complex social system of interrelated elements. • Human relations management skills can be developed. These skills can be improved through training or awareness, sensitivity, and competency in coping with the human problems of organizations. 3. What are the parts to an organizational system and how do they relate to one another and the total organization? (See pages 134–137 in the text.) • The systems approach represents an elaboration or expansion of contingency theory. Systems consist of a set of interrelated parts or components that work together to achieve a set of overall objectives. • An open system consists of nine characteristics: o Environmental awareness and importation of energy and resources refers to an organization being a part of an overall environment as discussed in the contingency theory. o Conversion of energy into goods and services is the process that occurs when an organization imports energy or resources and then converts them into some form of action. o Outputs are the various services a police department provides to the community. o Cyclical character of processes refers to the nature of work and activities in organizations. o Negative entropy is a process whereby the organization replenishes itself or stores energy or resources. o Feedback is the process whereby the organization monitors the environment to gather information about environmental needs and the organization’s performance. o Functional steady state or dynamic homeostasis means that organizations function within a set range of behaviors. Chapter 5: Contemporary Organizational Theories and Management Systems 97 o Movement toward growth and expansion refers to the fact that organizations are constantly expanding in terms of size and the scope of their boundaries. o Equifinality refers to the ability to reach a final state by a variety of paths. 4. What is total quality management and how would it work in a police department? (See pages 137–140 in the text.) • Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management philosophy as opposed to an organizational structure. TQM has two philosophical underpinnings: quality and customer orientation. • The opinions of the customer should be the chief determinants of quality. The customer is the most important consideration to the organization. • TQM applies to police organizations in three primary areas: o Culture refers to the internal operating philosophy of the organization, the matrix of values that reside within an organization. Under TQM, the citizen or consumer is most important, followed by work force and management. Police departments must change their culture so all members of the department are serving the citizens as their first priority. o Customers are clients, or those citizens who consume an organization’s product or receive its services. Law enforcement response to clients has been less than adequate as many jurisdictions concentrated on sufficiency of service rather than citizen satisfaction. o Counting refers to increasing the element of accountability and understanding within an organization in terms of how it operates and provides goods and services to its constituents; therefore police organizations must concentrate on the important rather than the mundane. • TQM is not easily implemented, as governmental organizations have a number of operational constraints that private enterprise lacks. Police departments cannot select or refuse the clients it serves, political necessity also places parameters on what a department can and cannot do, and civil service and other personnel laws constrain administrator’s ability to reward or empower employees.