Massachusetts Law of Self-Defense and Use of Deadly Force, Study notes of Law

Download Massachusetts Law of Self-Defense and Use of Deadly Force and more Study notes Law in PDF only on Docsity! Page 1 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE SELF-DEFENSE; DEFENSE OF ANOTHER; DEFENSE OF PROPERTY I. SELF-DEFENSE INTRODUCTION A person is allowed to act in self-defense. If evidence of self-defense is present, the Commonwealth must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant did not act in self-defense. In other words, if you have a reasonable doubt whether or not the defendant acted in self-defense, your verdict must be not guilty. Here instruct either on “A. Use of Non-Deadly Force” or “B. Use of Deadly Force.” In the occasional situation in which the level of force cannot be determined as a matter of law, the jury must be instructed on both. See note 4, infra. A. USE OF NON-DEADLY FORCE To prove that the defendant did not act in self-defense, the Commonwealth must prove one of the following things beyond a reasonable doubt: First, that the defendant did not reasonably believe he (she) was being attacked or immediately about to be attacked, and that his (her) safety was in immediate danger; or Instruction 9.260 Page 2 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition Second, that the defendant did not do everything reasonable in the circumstances to avoid physical combat before resorting to force; or Third, that the defendant used more force to defend himself (herself) than was reasonably necessary in the circumstances. B. USE OF DEADLY FORCE If the defendant (used deadly force, which is force intended or likely to cause death or great bodily harm) (or) (used a dangerous weapon in a manner intended or likely to cause death or great bodily harm), the Commonwealth must prove one of the following three things beyond a reasonable doubt: First, that the defendant did not reasonably and actually believe that he (she) was in immediate danger of great bodily harm or death; or Second, that the defendant did not do everything reasonable in the circumstances to avoid physical combat before resorting to force; or Third, that the defendant used more force to defend himself (herself) than was reasonably necessary in the circumstances. In conclusion, to obtain a conviction for the offense(s) of , the Commonwealth must prove each element of the Page 5 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE method. You may consider whether the use of force reasonably seemed to be the only means of protection in the circumstances. You may take into account that a person who is attacked may have to decide what to do quickly and while under emotional strain. A person cannot lawfully act in self-3. Excessive force. defense if one uses more force than necessary in the circumstances to defend oneself. How much force is necessary may vary with the situation. Exactness is not always possible. You may consider whether the defendant had to decide how to respond quickly under pressure. The Commonwealth may prove the defendant did not act in self-defense by proving beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant used clearly excessive and unreasonable force. You may also consider any evidence about the relative size or strength of the persons involved, where the incident took place, (and what kind of weapons, if any, were used), among other things. Instruction 9.260 Page 6 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition A person cannot lawfully act in self-defense4. Retaliation. when one uses force in retaliation. The right to self-defense arises from necessity and ends when the necessity ends. The Commonwealth may prove the defendant did not act in self- defense by proving beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was no longer in any immediate danger and was just pursuing his (her) attacker for revenge or to ward off any possibility of attack in the indefinite future. A person lawfully5. The “castle rule”: retreat not required in dwelling. occupying a house, apartment or other dwelling is not required to retreat from or use other means to avoid combat with an unlawful intruder, if two circumstances exist: First, the occupant reasonably believes that the intruder is about to inflict great bodily injury or death on him (her) or on another person lawfully in the dwelling; and Second, the occupant uses only reasonable means to defend himself (herself) or the other person lawfully in the dwelling. Page 7 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE A “dwelling” is a place where a person lives; a place where one is “temporarily or permanently residing and which is in [one’s] exclusive possession.” The term includes all buildings or parts of buildings used as dwellings, including (apartment houses) (tenement houses) (hotels) (boarding houses) (dormitories) (hospitals) (institutions) (sanitoriums) (or) (other buildings where people reside). The term “dwelling” does not extend to common areas such as common hallways in an apartment building. In multi- unit housing, the “dwelling” only extends to areas over which the person has a right of exclusive control. The Commonwealth may prove that the defendant did not act in self-defense in a dwelling by proving beyond a reasonable doubt: First, that (the premises were not a dwelling) (or) (the defendant was not a lawful occupant of the premises) (or) (the alleged victim was not an unlawful intruder) (or) (the defendant did not reasonably believe that the alleged victim was about to inflict great bodily injury or death on him (her) or on another Instruction 9.260 Page 10 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition not know of (that act) (those acts) of violence at the time of this incident. You may consider that evidence on the issue of whether [the alleged victim] initiated this incident. “Where the identity of the first aggressor is in dispute, the accused may offer evidence of specific incidents of violence allegedly initiated by the victim, or a third party acting in concert with or to assist the victim, whether known or unknown to the accused, and the prosecution may rebut the same in reputation form only.” Mass. G. Evid. § 404(a)(2)(B) (2008-2009). Accord, Commonwealth v. Pring-Wilson, 448 Mass. 718, 863 N.E.2d 936 (2007); Commonwealth v. Adjutant, 443 Mass. 649, 824 N.E.2d 1 (2005). The alleged acts must be more probative than prejudicial. Admission of specific acts of violence is preferred over more general evidence of a victim’s reputation for violence. Adjutant, supra. Such evidence must be otherwise admissible under the rules of evidence, and the judge has discretion to limit additional cumulative evidence. Commonwealth v. Clemente, 452 Mass. 295, 306 & n.18, 893 N.E.2d 19, 32 & n.8 (2008). You may consider9. Victim’s reputation for violence known to defendant. whether [the alleged victim] had a reputation for violence or quarreling that was known to the defendant on the issue of whether the defendant was reasonably (and actually) afraid for his (her) own safety. With respect to a claim of self-defense, the jury may consider whether the victim had a reputation for violence or being quarrelsome that was known to the defendant prior to the alleged incident. Commonwealth v. Clemente, 452 Mass. 295, 308, 893 N.E.2d 19, 33 (2008). Commonwealth v. Adjutant, 443 Mass. 649, 824 N.E.2d 1 (2005), did not alter the rule that (unlike specific acts of violence) such reputation evidence is admissible only if known to the defendant. Id. “In a criminal proceeding, in support of a claim of self-defense, the accused may offer evidence known to the accused prior to the incident in question of the victim’s reputation for violence, of specific instances of the victim’s violent conduct, or of statements made to the victim that caused reasonable apprehension of violence on the part of the accused.” Mass. G. Evid. § 404(a)(2)(A) (2008-2009). Commonwealth v. Dilone, 385 Mass. 281, 431 N.E.2d 576 (1982); Commonwealth v. Simmons, 383 Mass 40, 43, 417 N.E.2d 430 (1981); Commonwealth v. Edmonds, Page 11 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE 365 Mass. 496, 313 N.E.2d 429 (1974); Commonwealth v. Rubin, 318 Mass. 587, 63 N.E.2d 344 (1945); Commonwealth v. Kamishlian, 21 Mass. App. Ct. 931, 486 N.E.2d 743 (1985) (defendant’s nickname suggesting he was violent or quarrelsome); Commonwealth v. MacMurtry, 20 Mass. App. Ct. 629, 633, 482 N.E.2d 332 (1985); Commonwealth v. Marler, 11 Mass. App. Ct. 1014, 419 N.E.2d 854 (1981). Admission of such evidence “is limited to acts that are not too remote, lest the trial turn into a distracting and prejudicial investigation of the victim’s character.” Commonwealth v. Kartell, 58 Mass. App. Ct. 428, 790 N.E.2d 739 (2003). Accord, Commonwealth v. Fontes, 396 Mass. 733, 735-737 (1986). Admission of evidence of specific acts of violence is preferred over more general evidence of the victim’s reputation for violence. Commonwealth v. Adjutant, supra. Once the defense has raised the issue of the victim’s allegedly violent character, the prosecution may rebut by offering evidence of the victim’s reputation for peacefulness, Adjutant, supra; Lapointe, 402 Mass. at 324-5, 522 N.E.2d 937. When two people engage in a fist fight by10. Mutual combat. agreement, generally neither of them is acting in self-defense because they have not used all reasonable means to avoid combat. But a person regains the right of self-defense if during the fight he (she) reasonably concludes that the other person, contrary to their mutual understanding, has escalated the fight by introducing deadly force. Commonwealth v. Bertrand, 385 Mass. 356, 432 N.E.2d 78 (1982); Commonwealth v. Collberg, 119 Mass. 350 (1876); Commonwealth v. Barber, 18 Mass. App. Ct. 460, 466 N.E.2d 531 (1984), aff’d, 394 Mass. 1013, 477 N.E.2d 587 (1985). If a person has exhausted all proper11. Injury-prone victim. means to avoid physical combat, he (she) may use appropriate non-deadly force in self-defense if he (she) reasonably believes Instruction 9.260 Page 12 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition that his (her) personal safety is in danger, even against someone, like a drunk, who is known to be susceptible to injury. Commonwealth v. Bastarache, 382 Mass. 86, 414 N.E.2d 984 (1980). Because of the nature of the12. Police privilege; Resisting arrest. job, a police officer is permitted to use force in carrying out his (her) official duties if such force is necessary and reasonable. A person who is arrested by someone who he (she) knows is a police officer is not allowed to resist that arrest with force, whether the arrest is lawful or not. Even if the arrest is illegal, the person must resort to the legal system to restore his (her) liberty. However, if a police officer uses excessive or unnecessary force to make an arrest — whether the arrest is legal or illegal — the person who is being arrested may defend himself (herself) with as much force as reasonably appears to be necessary. The person arrested is required to stop resisting once he (she) knows or should know that if he (she) stops resisting, the officer will also stop using excessive or unnecessary force. The Page 15 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE death or great bodily harm) (or) (applied using a dangerous weapon likely to cause death or serious injury). It is the level of force used, not to the degree of injury caused, if any, that determines whether it is deadly force. ( If a warrantless arrest was made by a police officer outside his/her jurisdiction: A police officer who makes a warrantless arrest outside of his [her] jurisdiction acts as a private citizen. The officer must have probable cause to believe that a felony was committed and that this person committed it.) A person may use 14. Non-deadly force during citizen’s arrest. reasonable force to make a citizen’s arrest only if: First, he (she) believes that such force is immediately necessary to make a lawful arrest; Second, he (she) announces the purpose of the arrest or believes that it is already known to the person being arrested or believes that it cannot reasonably be made known to the person being arrested, and Instruction 9.260 Page 16 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition Choose appropriate instruction below: Third, the arrest wasA. If arrest was made pursuant to a warrant: pursuant to a valid warrant or the citizen making the arrest believed it was valid. Third, the arrest without aB. If arrest was made without a warrant: warrant was for a felony. Crimes that may be punished with a state prison sentence are called “felonies” while other crimes are called “misdemeanors.” C. If warrantless arrest was made by a police officer outside his/her jurisdiction: Third, the police officer made a warrantless arrest outside of his (her) jurisdiction and had probable cause to believe a felony was committed and that it was committed by this person. I instruct you as a matter of law that [relevant crime] is a (felony) (misdemeanor). Commonwealth v. Grise, 398 Mass. 247, 496 N.E.2d 162 (1986) (warrantless citizen arrests limited to felonies only); Commonwealth v. Klein, 372 Mass. 823, 828-832, 363 N.E.2d 1313 (1977) (burden of proof on Commonwealth); Commonwealth v. Lussier, 333 Mass. 83, 128 N.E.2d 569 (1955). Extra-territorial arrests by police are limited to felonies. Commonwealth v. Twombly, 435 Mass. 440, 758 N.E.2d 1051 (2001); Commonwealth v. Savage, 430 Mass. 341, 719 N.E.2d 473 (1999); Commonwealth v. Clairborne, 423 Mass. 275, 667 N.E.2d 873 (1996); Commonwealth v. Morrissey, 422 Mass. 1, 660 N.E.2d 376 (1996). On arrest by a bail surety, see Commonwealth v. Cabral, 443 Mass. 171, 819 N.E.2d 951 (2005). Page 17 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE II. DEFENSE OF ANOTHER Society wishes to encourage all of us to come to the aid of each other when that is necessary. Therefore, a person may use reasonable force when that is necessary to help another person, if it reasonably appears that the person being aided is in a situation where the law would allow him to act in self-defense himself. If there is any evidence in this case that the defendant may have been coming to the aid of another person, you must find the defendant not guilty unless the Commonwealth proves beyond a reasonable doubt at least one of the following two things: First: That a reasonable person in the defendant’s position would not have believed that his (her) use of force was necessary in order to protect [third party] ; or Second: That to a reasonable person in the defendant’s position would not have believed that [third party] was justified in using such force in his (her) own self-defense. So when does a person have a right to act in self-defense? Here instruct on self-defense. Defense of another is a complete defense. Commonwealth v. Johnson, 412 Mass. 368, 589 N.E.2d Instruction 9.260 Page 20 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition NOTES: 1. Self-defense is a complete exoneration. Commonwealth v. Corlino, 429 Mass. 692, 710 N.E.2d 967 (1999); Commonwealth v. Evans, 390 Mass. 144, 454 N.E.2d 458 (1983). Self-defense is available in assault cases as well as homicide cases. Commonwealth v. Burbank, 388 Mass. 789, 448 N.E.2d 735 (1983) (assault and battery with dangerous weapon); Commonwealth v. Mann, 116 Mass. 58 (1874) (assault and battery). Self-defense is available only where there is an immediate need to resort to force and not where other remedies are available. Commonwealth v. Lindsey, 396 Mass. 840, 489 N.E.2d 666 (1986) (unlawfully carrying a firearm in putative self-defense); Commonwealth v. Brugmann, 13 Mass. App. Ct. 373, 433 N.E.2d 457 (1982) (unlawful attempt to shut down nuclear power plant). 2. When self-defense instruction must be given. A defendant is entitled to an instruction on self- defense if the evidence, viewed in the light most favorable to the defendant, warrants at least a reasonable doubt about whether the elements of self-defense may be present. Commonwealth v. Harrington, 379 Mass. 446, 399 N.E.2d 475 (1980). The evidence of self-defense may come from the Commonwealth’s case, the defendant’s case or both. Commonwealth v. Galvin, 56 Mass. App. Ct. 698, 779 N.E.2d 998 (2002). All reasonable inferences should be resolved in favor of the defendant, and a judge should err on the side of caution in determining whether self-defense has been raised sufficiently to warrant an instruction. Commonwealth v. Pike, 428 Mass. 393, 701 N.E.2d 951 (1998); Commonwealth v. Galvin, 56 Mass. App. Ct. at 701, 779 N.E.2d at 1001; Commonwealth v. Toon, 55 Mass. App. Ct. 642, 644, 773 N.E.2d 993, 998 (2002). A self-defense instruction may be appropriate as to some counts but not as to others. Commonwealth v. Clark, 20 Mass. App. Ct. 392, 480 N.E.2d 1034 (1985). If there is an evidentiary basis, a judge should instruct on self-defense sua sponte, even absent a defense request. Commonwealth v. Galvin, supra. “Although it is generally preferable to instruct on the elements of a defense to a crime after describing the elements of the crime,” a judge may choose to instruct on self-defense first and then on the elements of the crimes charged. Commonwealth v. Santiago, 425 Mass. 491, 506, 681 N.E.2d 1205, 1216 (1997). A self-defense instruction is not required where the defendant entirely denies striking the victim. Commonwealth v. Vezina, 13 Mass. App. Ct. 1002, 433 N.E.2d 99 (1982). A judge may properly withdraw a self- defense instruction earlier given to the jury if the judge later concludes that there is no evidence to support it. Commonwealth v. Carrion, 407 Mass. 263, 552 N.E.2d 558 (1990). See Commonwealth v. Lyons, 71 Mass. App. Ct. 671, 675-676, 885 N.E.2d 848, 851-852 (2008) (where defendant was charged with indecent assault and battery, and the Commonwealth requested an instruction on lesser included offense of assault and battery,) court erred in withdrawing self-defense instruction because evidence permitted view that contact occurred only when defendant tried to push complainant away during scuffle. 3. Burden of proof and phrasing of instruction. Self-defense is “probably the most sensitive part of jury instructions in a criminal trial.” Commonwealth v. Deagle, 10 Mass. App. Ct. 748, 751, 412 N.E.2d 911, 914 (1980). When the issue of self-defense is properly raised, the Commonwealth has the burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant did not act in self-defense and this burden of proof should be expressly incorporated into the charge. Commonwealth v. A Juvenile, 396 Mass. 108, 483 N.E.2d 822 (1985). Self-defense instructions “must be carefully prepared and delivered so as to eliminate any language that might convey to the jury the impression that a defendant must prove that he acted in self-defense.” Commonwealth v. Vidito, 21 Mass. App. Ct. 332, 487 N.E.2d 206 (1985). Where deadly force was used, special care must be taken to instruct the jury that the Commonwealth has the burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt the absence of circumstances justifying deadly force in self-defense. Commonwealth v. Fontes, 396 Mass. 733, 488 N.E.2d 760 (1986). If the judge properly instructs the jury on the Commonwealth’s burden of proof with respect to self-defense, the judge is not required also to expressly instruct the jury to consider any evidence of self-defense presented by the defendant. As long as the judge does not distinguish between evidence of self-defense presented by the defendant and that presented by the Commonwealth, the jury should not be instructed on the burden of production because it lies outside the function of the jury. Commonwealth v. Glacken, 451 Mass. 163, 883 N.E.2d 1228 (2008). A judge should not (1) suggest that self-defense is a “defense” or that it must be established “to your satisfaction”, Commonwealth v. Simmons, 383 Mass. 40, 417 N.E.2d 430 (1981), nor (2) use “if you find” or “the defendant claims” language, Commonwealth v. Mejia, 407 Mass. 493, 554 N.E.2d 1186 (1990), nor (3) refer to self- defense as a “legal justification for conduct which would otherwise constitute a crime,” Commonwealth v. Vidito, supra. Page 21 Instruction 9.260 2009 Edition SELF-DEFENSE However, a judge may tell the jury that they must first “determine” or “find” whether self-defense exists, Id., 21 Mass. App. Ct. at 338, 487 N.E.2d at 210. A judge should avoid any explicit analogy with the “prudent person” standard of negligence law. Commonwealth v. Doucette, 391 Mass. 443, 462 N.E.2d 1084 (1984). A judge is not required to charge that any particular weapon may give rise to self-defense rights, Commonwealth v. Monico, 396 Mass. 793, 806- 807, 488 N.E.2d 1168, 1177 (1986) (shod foot). 4. Deadly force and non-deadly force involve two different standards. The right to use non-deadly force arises at a “somewhat lower level of danger” than the right to use deadly force. Commonwealth v. Pike, 428 Mass. at 395, 701 N.E.2d at 955. For that reason, the standards for self-defense using deadly force and non-deadly force “are mutually exclusive.” Commonwealth v. Walker, 443 Mass. 213, 820 N.E.2d 195 (2005). It is reversible error for a judge to give self-defense instructions related to deadly force when he or she should charge on self-defense related to non-deadly force, since doing so lowers the Commonwealth’s burden in proving that the defendant did not act in self-defense. Commonwealth v. Baseler, 419 Mass. 500, 503-504, 645 N.E.2d 1179, 1181 (1995). Where the level of force cannot be determined as a matter of law, it is a jury issue and the defendant is entitled to instructions on both use of deadly force and non-deadly force in self-defense. Where a weapon which may be dangerous was not used in its intended deadly manner, the jury must determine if it was deadly force. Commonwealth v. Walker, supra; Commonwealth v. Cataldo, 423 Mass. 318, 668 N.E.2d 762 (1996) (conflicting evidence about whether defendant who threatened aggressor with gun but did not shoot, intended to do so); Commonwealth v. Baseler, supra (conflicting evidence about whether defended himself by drawing gun or only by struggling). When the only force used was deadly force, the defendant is not entitled to a non-deadly force instruction. Commonwealth v. Lopes, 440 Mass. 731, 802 N.E.2d 97 (2004). Non-deadly force. Non-deadly force is justified in self-defense if (1) the defendant had a reasonable concern for his or her safety, (2) the defendant pursued all possible alternatives to combat, and (3) the force used was no greater than required in the circumstances. Commonwealth v. Haddock, 46 Mass. App. Ct. 246, 704 N.E.2d 537 (1999). “A defendant is entitled to an instruction on the use of non-deadly force if any view of the evidence, regardless of its credibility, and resolving all reasonable inferences in favor of the defendant, would support a finding that non- deadly force was, in fact, used in self-defense.” Lopes, supra. There is no right to use non-deadly force if there was no overt act against the defendant. Commonwealth v. Alebord, 49 Mass. App. 915, 733 N.E.2d 169 (2000). Deadly force. When deadly force is used, the first two prongs of self-defense are the same, but (3) is instead that the defendant had a reasonable fear that he or she was in imminent danger of death or serious bodily harm, and that no other means would suffice to prevent such harm. Id. Where deadly force was used, to show that “the defendant did not act in proper self-defense, the Commonwealth must prove at least one of the following propositions beyond a reasonable doubt: (1) the defendant did not have a reasonable ground to believe, and did not believe, that he was in imminent danger of death or serious bodily harm, from which he could save himself only by using deadly force; or (2) the defendant had not availed himself of all proper means to avoid physical combat before resorting to the use of deadly force; or (3) the defendant used more force than was reasonably necessary in all the circumstances of the case.” Commonwealth v. Glacken, 451 Mass. 163, 883 N.E.2d 1228 (2008). Deadly force is “force intended or likely to cause death or great bodily harm. This tracks our long-standing definition of a ‘dangerous weapon’.” Commonwealth v. Klein, 372 Mass. 823, 827, 363 N.E.2d 1313 (1977). “Deadly force” refers to the level of force used, not the seriousness of the resulting injury. Commonwealth v. Noble, 429 Mass. 44, 707 N.E.2d 819 (1999) (use of fist is non-deadly force even if death results); Commonwealth v. Pike, 428 Mass. at 396 n.3, 701 N.E.2d at 955 n.3 (judge should instruct on standard for non-deadly force if force generally considered non-deadly results in death in particular case); Commonwealth v. Wolmart, 57 Mass. App. Ct. 780, 786 N.E.2d 427 (2002) (use of knife was deadly force despite relatively minor injury). For when deadly force may be used in self- defense, see Commonwealth v. Berry, 431 Mass. 326, 727 N.E.2d 517 (2000); Commonwealth v. Pike, 428 Mass. at 395, 701 N.E.2d at 955 (assault with overt threat to cause serious bodily injury sufficient to warrant instruction on deadly force in self-defense); Commonwealth v. Barber, 394 Mass. 1013, 477 N.E.2d 587 (1985); Commonwealth v. Harrington, 379 Mass. 446, 399 N.E.2d 475 (1980); Commonwealth v. Hartford, 346 Mass. 482, 194 N.E.2d 401 (1963); Commonwealth v. Houston, 332 Mass. 687, 127 N.E.2d 294 (1955). 5. Retaliation. A person loses the right to self-defense if he or she pursues the original aggressor for retribution or to prevent future attacks, Commonwealth v. Barber, 394 Mass. 1013, 477 N.E.2d 587 (1985), or where if he or she has already disarmed the victim and retaliates in anger, Clark, supra. Instruction 9.260 Page 22 SELF-DEFENSE 2009 Edition 6. Reasonable apprehension. A person may use non-deadly force in self-defense when he “has a reasonable concern over his personal safety,” Commonwealth v. Baseler, supra; Commonwealth v. Bastarache, 382 Mass. 86, 414 N.E.2d 984 (1980), based on some overt act by the other, Commonwealth v. Alebord, 49 Mass. App. 915, 733 N.E.2d 169 (2000). Location, physical attributes, threats and weapons may be considered as to the reasonableness of the defendant’s state of mind. Vidito, 21 Mass. App. Ct. at 338, 487 N.E.2d at 210. To use deadly force in self-defense, a person must have reasonable cause to believe and actually did believe that he was in imminent danger of death or serious bodily harm from which he could save himself only by using deadly force. Commonwealth v. Berry, 431 Mass. 326, 727 N.E.2d 517 (2000). A first strike can be justified on a reasonable belief that the victim is reaching for a deadly weapon, Commonwealth v. Bray, 19 Mass. App. Ct. 751, 477 N.E.2d 596 (1985), but not on mere fear of a non-imminent assault, Commonwealth v. Hartford, 346 Mass. 482, 194 N.E.2d 401 (1963). 7. Mistaken but reasonable apprehension. A defendant is entitled to a self-defense instruction if he had a mistaken but reasonable belief that death or serious bodily injury was imminent, or that he had used all available means to avoid physical combat, or as to the amount of force necessary to deal with the perceived threat, provided that there is some evidence of the other elements of self-defense. Commonwealth v. Glass, 401 Mass. 799, 809; 519 N.E.2d 1311, 1318 (1988). See also Commonwealth v. Walker, supra; Commonwealth v. Toon, supra. For such a belief to be reasonable, the victim must have committed some overt act, including threats, against the defendant. Commonwealth v. Walker, supra. 8. “Battered person’s syndrome.” General Laws c. 233, § 23E provides that in self-defense cases, the defendant may introduce (1) evidence that he or she has been “the victim of acts of physical, sexual or psychological harm or abuse” and (2) expert testimony “regarding the common pattern in abusive relationships; the nature and effects of physical, sexual or psychological abuse and typical responses thereto, including how those effects relate to the perception of the imminent nature of the threat of death or serious bodily harm; the relevant facts and circumstances which form the basis for such opinion; and evidence whether the defendant displayed characteristics common to victims of abuse” on the issues of the reasonableness of: (1) the defendant’s apprehension of danger, (2) the defendant’s belief that he or she had used all available means to avoid physical combat, and (3) the defendant’s perception of the amount of force necessary. In essence, the same rule is also now the common law of this Commonwealth. Commonwealth v. Rodriquez, 418 Mass. 1, 7, 633 N.E.2d 1039, 1042 (1994). The Commonwealth may also offer such testimony “to help explain the conduct of a victim or a complainant over the course of an abusive relationship.” The expert’s testimony must be confined to the general pattern of behavioral and emotional characteristics shared by typical battering victims, and may not discuss the symptoms exhibited by the particular victim, nor opine on whether the particular victim suffers from that syndrome, nor describe or profile the typical attributes of batterers. Commonwealth v. Goetzendanner, 42 Mass. App. Ct. 637, 640-646, 679 N.E.2d 240, 243-246 (1997). 9. Duty to retreat. A person must generally use all proper means of escape before resorting to physical combat. Commonwealth v. Niemic, 427 Mass. 718, 696 N.E.2d 117 (1998); Commonwealth v. Gagne, 367 Mass. 519, 326 N.E.2d 907 (1975). The location of an assault is “an element of major importance” in determining whether all proper means have been taken to avoid deadly force. Commonwealth v. Shaffer, 367 Mass. 508 at 512, 326 N.E.2d 880 (1975). See also Commonwealth v. Williams, 53 Mass. App. Ct. 719, 761 N.E.2d 1005 (2000) (little effort to avoid combat). 10. Retreat not required in dwelling. The retreat requirement has been modified by the “castle law,” G.L. c. 278, § 8A, which provides that an occupant of a dwelling need not retreat before using reasonable means to defend himself or other occupants against an unlawful intruder whom the occupant reasonably believes is about to inflict great bodily injury or death on him or another lawful occupant. Nor is the occupant required to exhaust any other means of avoiding combat in such circumstances; the statutory term “retreat” encompasses all such means. Commonwealth v. Peloquin, 437 Mass. 204, 208, 770 N.E.2d 440 (2002); Commonwealth v. Gregory, 17 Mass. App. Ct. 651, 461 N.E.2d 831 (1984). The word “dwelling” is given its usual common law meaning and therefore excludes common areas of a multiple dwelling, Commonwealth v. Albert, 391 Mass. 853, 862; 466 N.E.2d 78, 85 (1984), an open porch and outside stairs, Commonwealth v. McKinnon, 446 Mass. 263; 843 N.E.2d 1020 (2006), and driveways, Commonwealth v.