Writing Guidance for Social Work Students: Effective Research and Argumentation, Assignments of Social Work

Download Writing Guidance for Social Work Students: Effective Research and Argumentation and more Assignments Social Work in PDF only on Docsity! Running Head: A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 1 A Writing Guide for Social Work Student Edition Prepared by Christopher D. Kilgore School of Social Work University of Texas – Arlington A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 2 Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Why Write? ................................................................................................................................................... 4 Common Writing Situations in Social Work .............................................................................................. 4 What Can I Expect? ....................................................................................................................................... 6 Common Assignments in Social Work Education ..................................................................................... 9 What Is Social Work Research? ................................................................................................................... 17 How Do I Start? Part 1: Prewriting ............................................................................................................ 21 A Preparatory Exercise: Apply the Why ................................................................................................. 22 A Preparatory Exercise: The Real Outline ............................................................................................... 27 How Do I Start? Part 2: Writing .................................................................................................................. 31 Why Cite? .................................................................................................................................................... 37 How Does APA Style Work? ........................................................................................................................ 39 Why Revise? ................................................................................................................................................ 43 Why Proofread? .......................................................................................................................................... 46 Conclusion: Where Do I Go From Here? .................................................................................................... 52 A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 5 being prepared to think critically, evaluating the authors’ claims and deciding whether they match up to the available data.  Grant Writing: Many of us will be required to at least participate in the grant-writing process, finding sources of funding, evaluating the application process, and developing an application that best suits the funder’s requirements. We will need to understand what funders want to see, what resources we have available, and how best to portray those resources in our application. o Key Skills: Effective grant-writing requires close attention to application instructions, funder needs, and a solid command of our institutional bureaucracy. Written grant- applications need to make specific arguments for the value of their proposal, and for its value here, now, and run by us. They also need to demonstrate a command of research already completed (see Research Reading, above).  Research Writing: Many of us, in practice situations as well as in academic positions, will need to conduct, document, and write up our own original research. We will need to understand the research that has already been completed, and make a clear argument that our research contributes significantly to the existing body of knowledge. o Key Skills: In addition to mastery over a given field, research writing requires clear, succinct sentences that make and support a clear argument, with clear references to our own data, and to existing research conclusions. We will need to master APA documentation, and to integrate others’ arguments and conclusions into our own prose (see Research Reading, above). We will also need to do a lot of self- evaluation, making sure our arguments and methods are free of faulty logic or unwarranted assumptions. As this list should demonstrate, regardless of our specific role in social work, we will need to be able to make effective arguments, use clear and specific language, use and interpret APA documentation, and integrate others’ conclusions into our own work. How? The next sections will show how writing assignments in social work education help us cultivate these skills, and how to make the best use of those assignments. Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, Introduction What Can I Expect? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 6 What Can I Expect? In social work education, instructors tend to assign several distinct types of writing assignments. Although individual instructors have their own unique expectations—especially with regard to the kind of course concepts we should use—assignments within each category nearly always share certain kinds of expectations. Common Expectations for All Writing Situations Regardless of the specific assignment, we’re guaranteed to need to meet a small set of “core” expectations for academic writing. Language: Although some assignments are couched as “informal,” we should always use correct grammar, style, and spelling. It’s just as important to proofread a journal entry as it is to proofread a research paper. Remember: How you say what you say is what you say. Errors in grammar and mechanics can distract our readers. Purpose (What We’re Doing): The purpose of academic writing is not to earn a grade. Sometimes even instructors forget this, so it deserves repetition and elaboration: The purpose of academic writing is not to earn a grade, or impress the instructor; rather, any assignment should accomplish an intellectual (and often also practical) task. In order to prepare to respond to an assignment, it’s important for us to distinguish between tasks and course goals or learning objectives. We should pay attention to which parts of the assignment tell us what to do, and parts that seem to be telling us how we’ll benefit by doing what we’ll do. Our writing should always perform the task, and not talk about the learning- objectives.  Task-Oriented Language: Specifies what we’ll need to do: Choose 5 course concepts…; describe…; explain…; identify…; summarize…; prepare a literature review…; create a “methods” section…; include an introduction/conclusion…; use APA style…; use section- headings…  Learning-Objective-Oriented Language: Specifies the benefits or skills we’ll acquire by doing the task, or the skills we’ll show that we have (by doing the task): demonstrate your understanding of…; show that you are aware of…; attain greater command of…; learn the benefits of…; learn how to…; improve your skills in…; A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 7 Assignments often include course objectives such as “demonstrate your awareness of social work ethics and values.” In any assignment, we “demonstrate” by doing the task well—for instance, by describing in detail and explaining how our specific examples raise (or answer) ethical concerns.  Statements such as “I am aware of social work ethics and values” just assert awareness. They don’t demonstrate awareness. They also don’t accomplish the actual task.  Statements such as “this paper will demonstrate my awareness…” describe how we’ll meet a course goal, not how we’ll carry out a task.  A more task-oriented statement might say, “This paper shows how (Organization X) meets the ethical standards set by the NASW.” By doing that task well, we’ll also be demonstrating our knowledge—so we don’t need to say that. Argument (How We’re Accomplishing Tasks): Not every piece of writing makes an argument, but most academic writing does, and even academic writing that doesn’t have to make an argument (e.g. when not required by an assignment) will probably work better if it makes one anyway. An argument, in its simplest form, is just a claim, supported by one or more reasons. We’ll often find that reasons also turn out to be claims too, which in turn require support. As we’ll see in the section What is Social Work Research?, sequences of claims often help structure a piece of writing. Often, assignments will pre-specify a primary claim. For example, the task, “Show how 3 theories we’ve studied in this course apply to your client’s situation,” gives us some big clues about what our primary claim will need to be. It had better mention a specific client, and it had better mention 3 specific theories. But it had also better assert, specifically, how and why those theories matter to this case. A good starting place for a claim might be something like, “Cognitive behavioral therapy should be useful in Robert’s case because…” So, there are two basic strategies to developing a good argument in response to any writing situation: Apply the WHY: Our main claim should answer a “why” question, even if it’s never explicitly stated. We can turn a claim into a thesis statement for an argument by asking, like a small curious child: “Why?” Produce a BECAUSE: Although the “because” may never appear in our actual essay or paper, we’ll imply that it exists. The “because” is the sign of a transition from a claim to a reason. A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 10 outline, and then write out the full journal entry.  Usually Unstated Expectations: o Language: Although these assignments are sometimes called “informal,” it’s generally understood that you should proofread them just as carefully as you would a “formal” paper. As in an employment environment, unprofessional grammatical errors do not put your work in its best light. o Specificity: The best journal entries really try to describe exactly what we witnessed or felt. The more specific the better: “I assisted with filing” is vague, but “I helped Dr. X and Ms. Y organize their case-notes” is more specific. Back to Top Reading / Viewing / Participation Response Assignments Common Assignment Titles in Social Work: Reaction essays, response essays, reading-response assignments, viewing-response assignments, service-learning reflection assignments, field placement reflection assignments These assignments ask us to respond to someone else’s work, often by placing it in a specific context related to a course’s content.  Usually Stated Expectations: The assignment will commonly specify the course concepts that should provide the context for our reactions. It will be important to use these concepts correctly, and consider their details and ramifications carefully.  Usually Unstated Expectations: o Description: In order to explain why and how a course concept is relevant, we will need to describe specific details from the reading, viewing, or participation experience. We can’t always assume that anyone else has picked out the same salient examples—so it’s a good idea to describe the details before explaining how they suit a given course concept. Back to Top Report Assignments Common Assignment Titles in Social Work: Reading summaries; reading reports; analysis of assigned readings A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 11 Sometimes assignments will require us to conduct more sustained reading (e.g. selected articles beyond our textbook) or practical activities (e.g. service with an organization, or conducting a session or mock-session with a client). Even these assignments should make an argument, usually that a specific theme, debate, or conclusion unifies the experiences or readings. We won’t be collecting data, but we will be drawing our own conclusions based on all of the available material, not simply repeating what was already said. These assignments have a lot in common with what’s often called a descriptive essay. For further discussion, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Descriptive Essays.  Usually Stated Expectations: These assignments usually specify a series of activities or readings, and also the general kind of unification we’ll be expected to give them (the theme, debate, or topic of inquiry they all address, for example).  Usually Unstated Expectations: o Argument: As we’ll see in the section What Is Social Work Research?, even a report based on reading a set of articles has to make an argument. If all we had to do was say again “what they said,” then why would we need to do any writing? A simple citation would suffice! We should look for implicit disagreements among authors, common claims, or common methods. How can we go beyond what each individual article asserts? o Specificity: In order to explain how the series of experiences or readings hang together, we will need to describe specific details from each reading or participation experience. We can’t always assume that anyone else has picked out the same salient examples—so it’s a good idea to describe the details (or quote brief excerpts) to help us explain how they agree, disagree, or work toward the same (or different) goals. Back to Top Critical Explication / Analysis Assignments (Research Assignments without Primary Data Collection) Common Assignment Titles in Social Work: Term paper, research paper, the integrative seminar paper, clinical assessment paper, When an assignment asks us to venture beyond readings selected by the instructor, we’re entering the realm of “Research Writing.” For these assignments, we’ll need to begin thinking about how to locate further information on a specific topic, so we’ll need to budget a good deal more time than in the preceding assignments. The next section, What Is Social Work A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 12 Research?, discusses this research strategies in much more detail; for now, we should just keep in mind that all of the skills in the preceding assignments come into play here. An “Explication” assignment asks that we conduct some basic research to find out the size and shape of a specific topic, problem, or issue, but does not require that we develop a practical prescription for action. Keep in mind, though, that “this is how it works” is a claim, and needs to be supported by reasons—which is to say, “explication” = “argument.” To complete such an assignment, we’ll need to collect articles and other sources to support our assertion that, for example, “homelessness is a pressing problem in contemporary urban areas,” or “cognitive behavioral therapy is an effective treatment for depression.” As we go, these kinds of claims should get more specific (see below). These assignments have a lot in common with what’s often called an expository essay. For further discussion, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Expository Essays. There is also more information on research in the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Conducting Research.  Usually Stated Expectations: Most assignments in this category provide a great deal of information about the exact tasks we’ll need to undertake. More than ever, we will need to read the assignment sheet carefully, distinguishing learning objectives from tasks, and sorting out the kind of research exploration we’ll need to launch. Most assignments will also specify the kinds of sources we’ll need to dig up to support our argument, and most will also ask that we document those sources in APA style. For more information about this, see the section Why Cite? Finally, we shouldn’t forget that our instructors will welcome the opportunity to help us decide on the best topic, and maybe even the best place to look for resources.  Usually Unstated Expectations: o Sources: Almost without fail, instructors assume that our sources will be peer- reviewed journal articles, or books. Websites can often offer excellent starting points, but we’ll need to dig deeper to find reliable, useful information. We can think about it this way: If I can already find it on Wikipedia, do I really need to restate it in my paper? Note: If my primary claim can be supported exclusively with information from Wikipedia or a similar online source, then the claim is not specific enough. Revise the claim by asking the interrogative questions, who, when, where, how, and why? For further discussion see the next section, What Is Social Work Research? o Specificity: Even more than in the previous assignments, instructors expect high specificity. The sample claims given above—“homelessness is a pressing problem in contemporary urban areas,” or “cognitive behavioral therapy is an effective treatment for depression”—usually aren’t specific enough. Again, we’ll A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 15 and how to use it, so they often won’t issue specific instructions beyond “use APA style.” If we don’t know already, now’s the time to find out! See the section, Why Cite? Back to Top Research Assignments (Collecting Primary Data) Common Assignment Titles in Social Work: Term paper, research paper, program evaluation paper, master’s thesis, dissertation. The most complex type of writing work we can undertake in any academic realm, primary data research involves a far more sustained expenditure of time and energy than any of the previous categories. Often we’ll need to start on these projects early in the semester, and some (like the master’s thesis or dissertation) will stretch well beyond a single semester. They’ll require that we: a.) do all the work for an expository essay, using research to establish “how things work” with a specific problem, topic, or area of inquiry; b.) do all the work for a practical-argument essay, using research to establish “how things should work,” and that “this is the best way to change how things work to how things should work”; c.) conduct an intervention or a data- collection in the field, to find out whether “our way of changing things works”; and finally d.) analyze the data collected and explain what the results mean for the study—and for the whole problem or situation—to show that “our way of changing things works.” Whew! This kind of research entails far more writing work than it may seem, and this guide will help us tackle some of that work in the next section, What Is Social Work Research? There is also more information on research in the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Conducting Research, particularly in the section on Conducting Primary Research.  Usually Stated Expectations: Most assignments in this category provide a great deal of information, but they often allow even more leeway for us to choose a topic and a method for analysis. That leeway is both a boon and a challenge, because most of the topics or issues we’ll think of right off the bat will be far too broad, and we’ll need to refine them with multiple rounds of interrogative pronouns (who, what, when, where, how, why) to produce a workable method for data collection. We shouldn’t forget that our instructors are experienced in these processes, and for projects like this, they will welcome the opportunity to help us decide on the best course of action.  Usually Unstated Expectations: o Sources: We should not forget that we will need to support three different arguments with our research: an argument about how things work; an A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 16 argument about how things should work; and an argument about the best method for getting there. Almost without fail, instructors assume that our sources will be peer-reviewed journal articles, or books. For further discussion see the next section, What Is Social Work Research? o Specificity: Even more than in the previous assignments, instructors expect high specificity. We’ll need to revise our primary claims several times, by asking the interrogative questions, who, when, where, how, and why? For further discussion see the next section, What Is Social Work Research? o Section Headings: In almost all data-collection writing assignments, we will use one set of section headings: Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Data Analysis, and Conclusion and Discussion. We should check with our instructor if the assignment leaves the sections unclear. o APA Style: Instructors always assume that we already know what APA style is, and how to use it, so they often won’t issue specific instructions beyond “use APA style.” If we don’t know already, now’s the time to find out! See the section, Why Cite? Back to Top Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, What Can I Expect? What Is Social Work Research? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 17 What Is Social Work Research? Simply put, research is the engine that drives our day-to-day actions, whether we work in an academic office or a direct-practice position. In the course of earning a degree in social work, we will need to conduct our own research, and do a lot of writing that recounts, analyzes, applies, and evaluates that research. So what is “research” anyway? Even if you already know, this section is designed as a refresher, a reminder that there’s more to the research process than Google and some good keywords. The next section, How Do I Start? Part 1, will feature more hands-on exercises that should prove useful in responding to writing assignments. The Idea of “Research” For much of our daily lives, we can go about our business relying upon habits, or practical knowledge we’ve developed through experience. The 17th-century Scottish philosopher David Hume once offered an extreme example: We all “know” that the sun will rise tomorrow, but really all we have to go on is the fact that it’s risen on every other morning that we can remember. Until we develop an empirically-provable theory about what a “sunrise” really is, we can’t really know that the sun will rise tomorrow. All we have is habit and assumption. The same can be said at a much smaller scale: before we can adequately serve our clients or advocate for social justice, we need to know that our actions stand the best chance of helping these specific clients with the specific challenges they face—and we need to know how to back up our claims and advocate effectively. Research is using methodical analysis to answer questions, and it generally tends to involve one or both of two basic activities: 1. Reviewing the Literature (Secondary Research) 2. Testing a Hypothesis (Intervention, Primary Research) At each stage of this process, it’s important to make clear where our information comes from, not only to give other authors their due credit, but also to show future readers where our research fits. For more on how to document our sources, see the upcoming section, Why Cite? 1. Reviewing the Literature (Secondary Research) Often writing assignments are going to ask us to make a case for a specific action—an intervention with a client or organization, or perhaps a policy or practice. In order to do that, we will need to find out what others have already learned about the situation we face. It won’t A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 20 of the literature (see above!) is so important: it lets us draw broader conclusions that would be unavailable based on just one or two studies. Here the serpent eats its tail: reviews of the literature allow us to decide on appropriate theory bases and methods, which help us create our own conclusions, which in turn feed further work on the theory-bases and methods we’ve used. Back to Top Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, Common Assignments in Social Work Education How Do I Start? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 21 How Do I Start? Part 1: Prewriting Writing in any discipline presents us with an imposing experience: Staring at a blank page, just before starting to write. The good news is that, with a little practice, we can face this experience with plenty of confidence—and also some preparatory work that makes it much easier. The present section offers us some simple exercises that can help get past that moment of anxiety, that “What do I do now?” moment. But the best piece of advice is also the shortest: Writing is a Process: Start early! If there’s a single most important thing to remember about writing, it’s that writing is a process. Actually typing complete sentences into a blank document is just one tiny step, and it happens somewhere in the middle of the process. If we can follow the other steps effectively, it does not have to be a daunting step. The three basic steps toward a successful paper are prewriting, writing, and revising. We need to keep in mind that each of these steps deserves significant time, so we need to start early. This section has two parts: Part 1 (below) discusses prewriting. Part 2 (click here) discusses draft writing. Before we face that blank page, we should prepare ourselves with three key elements:  Preparatory Exercises  Appropriate Research  An Outline We have to remember to fine-tune each of these elements as we go, to make sure it suits the writing situation we face. For more information on common writing situations and their explicit and tacit requirements, see What Can I Expect? For more information on types of research, see What Is Social Work Research? This guide provides two exercises to help the prewriting process and get us started on appropriate research: Apply the Why – An easy exercise to turn the kernel of an idea into a more specific research question or hypothesis. Specific questions or hypotheses will help us conduct appropriate research. The Real Outline – An easy exercise to break up an argument into sub-arguments that fit each section of a paper, producing an outline that we can work from. Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, What Is Social Work Research? How Do I Start? – Part 2: Writing A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 22 A Preparatory Exercise: Apply the Why There are many potential ways to get our ideas started, and we may find that we prefer to diagram things visually, or to create lists. Either way, before we can even start researching (or even crack open the textbook, if it’s that kind of writing situation), we need to figure out what we’re trying to say. One way to do that is to take our first kernel of an idea—no matter how small or basic—and turn it into a question we’ll have to answer, or an argument that we’ll have to support. To do that, we need to call upon a handy grammatical category: the interrogative pronouns. Once we have a more specific question or hypothesis, we’ll have the search terms we’ll need to make our library work manageable. For this exercise, we’ll need a writing assignment, a very basic declarative sentence in answer to the assignment, and the interrogative pronouns: What? Where? When? Who? How? Why? We’ll also need about half an hour of uninterrupted time (to do the exercise), and then some more time to conduct our research. STEP 1: Create a Simple Sentence To begin with, write down a very basic declarative sentence (or as complex a sentence as we can manage at the moment). Sample Assignment: Choose a serious social issue. Conduct a literature review in which you clarify its significance, and then make an argument for a specific course of community action. Sample Declarative Sentence: Homelessness is a serious social problem. STEP 2: Recruit Interrogative Pronouns Start writing in the interrogative pronouns, either beneath (if you’re inclined to verbal, textual organization) or around (if you lean toward visual organization) that main sentence. (The next page provides some examples.) A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 25 Sample Graphical Version: Homelessness is a serious social problem What? When? Where? Who? How? Why? What is “homelessness”? Seems like some people are long-term homeless, but others sometimes have trouble, but then find a place to live. When has homelessness already been studied? How long has it been studied? When has it been a serious problem? Is it getting worse? Seems like mostly an urban problem. Do people lose their housing in rural or suburban areas too? How come I never hear about that? Who are the people that have nowhere to live? It seems like people with serious untreated emotional or mental disorders are some of the long-term homeless, but what about people who lose their houses to foreclosure? How should we study homelessness? How’s it been studied already? And, how serious a problem is it? Are there more serious problems I should be studying? Why should we pay so much attention to this problem? Why do people lose their housing? Do they get it back? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 26 STEP 4: Refine and Specify Using what you know, and what these questions suggest, refine our original statement. We should make it much, much more specific, and maybe even turn it into a question. Sample Research Question Version: Is long-term homelessness a serious problem in the suburban/urban areas in the Dallas/Fort Worth metroplex? Sample Statement (Hypothesis) Version: Ever since the housing crisis of 2008, chronic homelessness has been an increasingly serious problem in the suburban/urban Dallas/Fort Worth metroplex. NOTE: Even though it might look authoritative, the statement/hypothesis version isn’t something we know. It’s a guess that we now need to test by looking for available data, and perhaps even collecting new data of our own. STEP 5: Start Reviewing the Literature Now it’s time to hit the library databases, our textbooks, and any other sources we can find. We can use the more precise sentence to generate keywords to help us find out what the research community already knows about this specific issue. In the case of the “Question Version,” we’ll need to find some kind of answer that lets us move forward with our project. In the case of the “Statement Version,” we’ll need to find information that supports all the parts of the assertion. For example, a search for just “homelessness” in the “Social Sciences” databases turns up about 13,000 results, which is far too many to examine. A similar search using “chronic homelessness” turns up 540 results—a lot less, but still too many. But when we refine the results further, by adding the word “urban” (127 results) and then the word “Dallas” (2 results), we quickly get much narrower collections of articles. Even 127 results is a manageable number, because we can quickly skim titles and abstracts, and discard articles that don’t help us. When we’ve conducted some research and feel like we’re beginning to have something to say, it’s time to start organizing our thoughts and preparing to create a draft. Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Exercise, How Do I Start? – Part 1: Prewriting The Real Outline A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 27 A Preparatory Exercise: The Real Outline Even if we already have an argument in mind, and even if we’ve already done some useful prewriting exercises, the blank page of a word processing program can still look mighty intimidating. An outline can help, but it can also get in the way. Consider the following outline: Example: Introduction Literature Review Main Argument Conclusion This looks like an outline, but really it’s a list—a list of section headings! If I need to make a clear argument, the words “Literature Review” might be just as nerve-wracking as staring at a blank page. In this exercise, we’ll take this list of section headings and turn it into a real outline, using a sample argument from the previous exercise, Apply the Why. STEP 1: Clarify Purpose For each section, we should write down some questions that show what this part of the argument is going to need to do. Arguments and purposes vary a great deal, depending on the writing situation (see this guide’s summary of Common Writing Situations in Why Write? and What Can I Expect?), but here are some common examples: Introduction: Why is this paper about this topic? Why is the topic important? Literature Review: What have others already said about this and similar topics? Main Argument: What does your research tell us about this topic? What is your new contribution? Conclusion: What future courses of action does your argument suggest? What still remains to be done? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 30 Conclusion: Since this is such a serious problem here, it might be equally serious or even more serious elsewhere. Also, we should be finding out more about what’s unique about this area.  Government data ABC on status of housing in other specific areas  Information from scholars listed above, showing where there’s more work to be done. STEP 5: Organize, and Start Writing! Now it’s time to look through the lists we’ve made, and think about what order would best convey what we want to say. For example, in the introduction, it might be useful to start with a clear, striking anecdote about one person’s experience, before we report national data, so we might reorganize as shown in this sample: Sample: Initial Version Introduction: Homelessness is a far-reaching problem.  National data XYZ on homelessness  Anecdote about chronic homeless persons ABC Sample: Revised Version Introduction: Homelessness is a far-reaching problem.  Anecdote 1 about chronically homeless person A  National data XYZ on homelessness  Anecdote 2 about chronically homeless persons B&C  Statement on what we need to do Once we’ve reorganized each list, we’ll have a very strong blueprint for a well-organized paper. It will be much easier to sit down and write if we already have this complex outline in front of us—instead of that initial list of section headings! Return to the Previous Exercise, Continue to the Next Section, The Real Outline How Do I Start? Part 2: Writing A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 31 How Do I Start? Part 2: Writing If we start off by doing some Prewriting, we can start the actual writing with confidence, knowing we have an outline, a road-map for where our argument begins, and where it’s going. If we start the whole process early, we’ll be able to do the writing with even more confidence, knowing that we’ll have time to come back later and fix problems. That means that we don’t have to write everything perfectly the first time around. All the same, we can make things easier on ourselves by paying careful attention to a few things right now, as we write: - Best Practices for Efficient Writing - How Should I Use My Sources? - What if I Get Stuck? - What Is a Claim? Best Practices for Efficient Writing There are a few things we can do to help us work as efficiently as possible, and save us more work later on: tracking our sources as we go, and making basic grammatical decisions before we write. Tracking Citations It’s always important to keep track of where information came from as we write. It may seem like a pain to enter an in-text citation in the middle of the writing process, but that’s nothing compared to how difficult it is to look back after we’re done, and figure out where we got something. Many cases of plagiarism happen because we included data, but forgot to provide the source. If, in the moment of writing, I can’t remember exactly where I got a specific piece of information, I tend to leave myself a note, such as: (CITATION from JONES GOES HERE). That way, I won’t forget to attribute the information to Jones. For more information about citations, see the next section, Why Cite? Basic Grammatical Decisions It’s important to figure out the most basic elements of our writing before we start. Some elements, like pronouns, can be fixed later, but others, such as verb tenses, are very difficult to edit effectively. A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 32 Tense: It’s important to decide when everything has happened as you write, so that your verbs all communicate the correct information to the audience.  The Past Tense: Use the past tense when you want to describe events that happened at a specific time, but are over now. o Past research activity, which was completed at a specific point. Example: “In the 1980s, researchers found that AIDS cases in the continental US were on the rise.” o Your own data collection. Example: “Fourteen subjects participated in the focus group.” o Past theoretical models, when you want to contextualize them (e.g., when they’re no longer accepted as valid). Example: “Freud thought that girls pass through a stage involving ‘penis envy.’”  The Present Tense: Use the present tense to indicate what continues to happen now, and what your work is demonstrating. o Events that began in the past, but continue to be true today. Example: “The Centers for Disease Control manage reports of outbreaks all over the USA.” o Conclusions that you reach in this project. Example: “These data show that the intervention should be successful in comparable cases.” o Theoretical models that you are discussing as abstract models. Example: “For Seymour Chatman, narrative comprises both the story (what is told), and the discourse (how the story is told).” o Theoretical models that have not been invalidated. Example: “According to Lacan, human self-consciousness begins at the ‘mirror stage.’” Person: It’s also important to decide how we will refer to our own work. Some specific contexts require the use of passive voice, while many (particularly in social work) require us to refer to our own experiences, using the pronoun I.  Passive Voice: Generally, passive voice constructions are weaker, and make reading more difficult. That means they should be avoided, except where required, and even then, there are correct and incorrect usages. For further information, see the Purdue OWL page on Passive Voice. o Passive Voice Used Incorrectly: “That means they should be avoided.” Yes, this guide itself is not immune. For some examples that demonstrate how to change passive to active voice, see the Purdue OWL page here. o Passive Voice Used Correctly—to describe data-collection activity: “Fourteen subjects were interviewed.” For more examples of useful passive-voice moments, see the Purdue OWL page on Using Passive Voice. A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 35 rough on the reader, and sometimes produces jarring clashes of tone and diction. Instead, I should choose only the most important part of the sentence, and introduce just that part with my own argument. o Effective Example: Against the idea that education is meant to get us a job, Hart argues that “the goal of education is to produce the citizen” (citation would go here). o Less-Effective Example: “It’s not the perfect, not the nuclear family they were born into, or the happy ending they might have asked for. But maybe it is enough” (citation). Since the divorce I have watched my parents grow as people. I recognize that they are human and make mistakes.  Improved: Since the divorce I have watched my parents grow as people, and I can see now that they are human and make mistakes. Like Matthiessen, I see our family as “not the perfect, not the nuclear family,” or “the happy ending [we] might have asked for. But maybe it is enough” (citation).  Quoting someone’s summary of someone else’s argument is almost never a good idea. If I need that specific piece of information, I need to go find the original article, to make sure I understand the context and interpret the information correctly.  Inserting a quotation I don’t fully understand is never a good idea. Sure, it may “sound good” to me, but if I don’t know what it really says, then I can’t be sure it actually supports my claim. It might say the exact opposite of what I wanted to say. Back to Top What if I Get Stuck? We should always bear in mind that our writing has to make an argument. That means we’re making claims, and supporting those claims with reasons. In turn, we’ll be choosing reasons that we know will make sense to our audience. As we write, it’s worth paying attention to the kinds of claims we’re making, by asking the following questions (particularly when we’re “stuck”): Is this claim based on common knowledge that my audience will share?  If so, do I really need to make this claim in detail, or can I assume the audience will already know something about it?  If not, do I need to provide some more support for the claim? Do I have anecdotal information (my personal experience, or the personal experience of someone I’ve interviewed) to support my claim? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 36  If so, is it convincing enough to support my claim?  If not, do I need to interview someone, or find some more data? Do I have the data to support my claim?  If so, what would be the best quotation or summary to use here?  If not, do I need to find some more data? If it seems I need to find some more data, will my whole argument change if I don’t find what I need, or if what I find contradicts my point?  If the whole argument will change, it’s best to stop writing until I find some more data.  If the whole argument will not change, it’s best to make a note to myself, right there in the text (for example, (Demographic data GOES HERE)), and keep writing. Back to Top What is a claim? A claim is any statement we make in a paper that isn’t derived from another source, and does not directly report information we ourselves have observed. Example 1: Most people need external motivation to change their daily habits. (That’s a claim: I would need to provide data to support it.) Example 2: The study found that 78% of the subjects who changed their daily habits had external motivation. (Not a claim: This is a report of experimental results.) Example 3: Because 78% of the subjects who changed their daily habits had external motivation, it’s fair to say that most people of similar demographics also need this kind of motivation to change. (Both at once: This sentence integrates the claim from Example 1 with the data report from Example 2, uniting a claim and some support. But by doing that, it creates a new claim: that these data can be generalized. That claim will need—yes—more support.) Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, How Do I Start? – Part 1: Prewriting Why Cite? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 37 Why Cite? Most of us get the necessity for proper citation drilled into us as soon as we get to college, and then over and over again, in each successive class or degree program. In social work, we have to use APA style (created by and for the American Psychological Association), and we have to cite our sources, and we’re told over and over again that this citation process helps us avoid accusations of plagiarism. But that’s not the whole story. The truth is much more complex and interesting. Why cite? This guide suggests a number of reasons, but we should first be clear about what we’re describing. Citation systems are designed to accomplish multiple goals, but these goals fall into two basic categories: attribution and documentation. Once we’re clear on these, we can proceed to the practical side, available on the next page, How Does APA Style Work? Attribution When I attribute a quotation or a piece of information to a source, I distinguish between that source’s contribution to my argument, and my argument itself, my own conclusions. There are many documentation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago, and many others), but they are all designed to make attribution easier. We need to get used to using a citation style, not because “they” say so, but because it helps us organize our thoughts. Plus, attribution, giving credit where credit is due, helps us avoid plagiarism.  Organize Our Thoughts: College writing requires a difficult balancing act, between generating our own conclusions and acknowledging what’s already been done by others. When we write, we enter a conversation with others in our field, and as in any conversation, we’re obliged to acknowledge others’ statements, but also to contribute new and interesting ideas. By carefully tracking and attributing others’ conclusions to them, we can keep a clear eye on what we’re really adding to the conversation. If all I’m doing in a paper is repeating information I’ve learned elsewhere, then I need to reconsider my project, and re-work it in order to make an argument of my own. For more information on common types of argument in social work, see this guide’s sections, Why Write? and What Is Social Work Research?  Show Others Who Said What: We have to remember, too, that our writing isn’t just an exercise to get a grade. It’s a piece of communication, aimed at refining our collective understanding of how the world works. When we attribute information to our research sources, we provide information that others can use—we help teach others. A citation system helps provide our readers with a road map to the information we’ve used—not A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 40 see the Purdue O.W.L. section on basic style. o For more information about how to create headings and sub-headings in an APA Style paper, see the Purdue O.W.L. page on headings and seriation.  References: The References section contains all the information anyone would need to find any of the sources we use (see below). Back to Top In-Text Citations The Main Body should also contain in-text citations. These can seem confusing, so it’s worth remembering that APA style cares the most about only a few pieces of information in the text: the Author’s last name(s) and the publication date should always appear, in parentheses, after information that we derive from another writer’s work. If we quote some text, or if we paraphrase information from a single paragraph, we’ll also need a page number. If there’s no page number, then yes, it’s necessary to count paragraphs! The format looks like this: (Lastname, Date, p.1).  For more information about in-text citations, see the Purdue O.W.L. page on in-text citations.  For more information about how to handle authors’ last names in in-text citations, see the Purdue O.W.L. page on Author/Authors.  Best Practice: It’s best to put in in-text citations as soon as we add a quotation, paraphrase, or summary to our paper. They’re hard to add later! Back to Top References The References section contains all the information anyone would need, in order to find any of the sources we use. Sometimes the sheer number of possible source-types can seem overwhelming, but it’s worth remembering that APA papers need to offer at least four basic categories of information: Author(s), Date, Title(s), and Publication Information. As long as we make a serious effort to include that information, and in that order, we’ll be well on our way to correct APA reference style.  For more information on the References section, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s page on Basic Rules.  The Purdue O.W.L. also provides a variety of useful sub-categories dealing with most types of sources. Of particular interest: o Articles in Periodicals A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 41 o Books o Electronic Sources  Best Practice: It’s best to create a “references entry” for a source as soon as we decide that it’ll be useful. If we create a computer document with all of that information, all we’ll need to do when it comes time to compose a References section is copy and paste!  Best Practice: From painful experience, it’s best not to rely on automated or computerized citation systems. Some of these programs can create a references entry for us, but most will get something wrong, and some of them make a downright mess! If you do use one, be sure to double-check it against the APA manual, or the Purdue O.W.L. Back to Top Frequently Asked Questions As suggested throughout this guide, the APA style manual is the best resource for detailed questions about the practical details of correct citation. But this guide also highly recommends the following sources: The Purdue OWL APA Style Guide – cited throughout this guide, this resource has an easy-to- read menu and plenty of examples. The APA Style Blog – Maintained by APA editors themselves, the blog answers many arcane questions about formatting and the proper method for citing all manner of sources. The following Frequently Asked Questions are more general questions about how and when to use citations… Q: When should I cite? A: We should cite a source whenever the ideas we’re discussing are not derived from our own conclusions, experience, or data-collection. If we find that all we’re doing is providing information from other sources, then it’s time to reconsider our project. Are we making an argument, or just reporting someone else’s? For more information about how to improve our argument, see this guide’s section, How Do I Start – Part 1: Prewriting. Q: When should I use quotation marks? A: We should enclose in quotation marks any section of text that looks almost exactly like what the original author wrote. The technical limit is 5 words, not including particles and conjunctions (a, the, if, and, but). If more than five of the words in a sentence are the original author’s, it’s time to either rewrite the paraphrase more effectively, or use a direct quotation. A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 42 For more information on how to quote effectively, see this guide’s section, How Do I Start? – Part 2: Writing. Q: How do I cite a quote within a quote? There are actually two answers to this question: Short Answer: Don’t. Generally, it’s best to find the original source, and take a good look at that source. Every paper makes an argument and every argument picks and chooses its support from the available sources. A source may be misrepresenting—or just being very selective about—the material being quoted. Long Answer: In some rare circumstances, it may be necessary to cite a quote within a quote. Usually these circumstances involve a source citing something that’s very difficult (or actually impossible) for us to find and read ourselves. For example, some sources cite personal conversations or interviews, while others may cite speeches for which no transcription is available. In these cases only, we might need to cite a quote within a quote. This is called an indirect citation. For more information about how to format such a citation, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s overview of Author/Authors, and scroll down to the entry for indirect citations. Back to Top Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, Why Cite? Why Revise? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 45 Rework the argument according to the new outline: In re-outlining, we may have already discovered that the sequence of sections doesn’t quite work, or that our claims are too broad. If this is the case, we’ll need to go into the re-reading process already prepared to cut over- large paragraphs, add new paragraphs, beef up supporting information, or add new sections. Make sure the argument as stated matches the argument in the outline: It may be that we have not discovered serious gaps in the outline, and if that’s the case, then we’ll need to compare what we said in the outline with what the paper actually does. On this “second look” at our draft, we should be prepared to discover that we didn’t finish thoughts, that we forgot to include supporting information, or that our work does not quite express the ideas we meant it to express. Now is the time to make those changes, deleting or re-writing whole paragraphs if they do not serve the argument. Again, there are many potential problems here, so this guide will not attempt to detail them all. However, here are some common problems that a revision can fix:  Key paragraphs lack sufficient or appropriate support: We will need to be able to tell which are the most vital claims our argument makes, so that we make sure they receive the support they need. As a rule of thumb, it’s best not to rely on personal experience alone, on only one source, or on non-peer-reviewed sources, to support important elements of an argument. o For more information on identifying the vital claims in our arguments, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Logic in Argumentative Writing.  Paragraphs don’t stick to one idea: Revision gives us the perfect opportunity to make sure we “package” our ideas efficiently. When writing a first draft, it’s easy to get side-tracked and develop too many ideas at once. Each paragraph should sustain and develop one main idea, and we should start a new paragraph when we find we’re shifting gears. o For more information on how to construct effective paragraphs, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Paragraphs and Paragraphing.  Important ideas are too broad to be supported: It’s usually easy to catch this problem in the “re-outlining” steps, but we should keep an eye out for claims that are too broad. Each time we re-read one of our major claims, we should keep in mind the interrogative pronouns, and ask ourselves who (or for whom), where, when, how, and why. If the answer is “for everybody,” or “everywhere,” or “since the beginning of time,” then the claim is probably too broad. o For more information on creating effective claims, see the Purdue O.W.L.’s section on Paragraphs and Paragraphing. Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, How Does APA Style Work? Why Proofread? A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 46 Why Proofread? This guide gives “revising” and “proofreading,” separate sections, because really they’re two different processes. It’s easy to confuse the two, especially when a deadline looms, and we find we want to look over a paper as fast as possible before turning it in. Although revising is often a more time-consuming process, proofreading deserves its own separate time and place. As always, this guide advises us to start early, in order to leave enough time near the end of the process. The Details Matter Whereas revisions address large-scale structural issues and involves making changes to the argument, proofreading addresses the correct use of language and format, including grammar, style, and APA documentation. These issues are not simply trivial matters; they have a profound effect on how others perceive our writing, and in today’s technologically-mediated world, they also have a profound effect on how others perceive us, particularly if they rarely see us in person.  How you say what you say… is what you say. When we need to communicate important information, seemingly minor errors can change the message, creating confusion.  How you say what you say… is how you appear. Errors in spelling and grammar subtly bias the reader against the writer’s argument. Presenting a paper with spelling errors (e.g. in using their/there/they’re, or its/it’s) is like attending a business meeting in sandals—it makes readers take us less seriously!  How you cite what you say… is how you present yourself as an expert. Errors in documentation not only place us at risk of plagiarism; they also make it more difficult for others to understand where we got our information, and to develop further research. They can also decrease our reader’s sense that we know what we’re talking about, eroding our ethos. We can proofread effectively in many different ways, so the following instructions are just intended to get us started. F.A.Q: Can I automate this? Many students have asked whether there is an automatic, free, online system to check papers for errors. Let’s address this quickly and succinctly: No. Grammar, spelling, and style are too complex for today’s technology to handle as yet— particularly the technology available for free on the Internet. I have personally tested 16 of the A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 47 most popular free online grammar/spell-checkers, and all failed so miserably that it was embarrassing. They simply do not catch 90% or more of egregious errors. Instead of turning to technology, this guide recommends using your own brain and eyes, in three easy steps: STEP ONE: Wait Proofreading effectively means seeing the document clearly, and that means, just as in revising, it’s best to wait a day or two after we’ve finished our final draft. When I go back over a document I’ve just finished writing, I tend to see what I meant to say, instead of what I actually wrote down, and I’ve met many who share the same experience. Even egregious spelling, grammatical, or documentation errors just won’t register if we just finished writing. STEP TWO: Alienate When we do sit down to proofread, it helps to make the document look different, giving us further distance from our original intent in writing. Like most students, I write on a computer, and that means when I turn to proofreading, I often want to print out my document. Everything looks different on paper! It might also be useful to change the font, or the background color. If possible, it’s also useful to have someone else read my text back to me—I catch all kinds of errors when I hear them in someone else’s voice, or when I hear someone else stumble over a strange construction. Finally, perhaps the easiest method for alienation is to partner up with someone else whose grammatical and stylistic skills I trust. I’ll read her paper while she reads mine, and we both benefit! STEP THREE: Corrections So we’re beginning to read—how do we know when we’ve made mistakes? Some mistakes will be glaringly obvious on a second read-through, but others tend to be a bit sneaky. There are many possible areas to cover, so this guide will only touch upon a few general ideas, and then refer to other resources. Occam’s Stylistic Razor: Once again, this guide borrows from the common logical precept of “Occam’s Razor.” Occam ’s razor suggests that the simplest explanation is the best, and so, as we proofread, it will be useful to keep in mind that the simplest sentence is often the best. We may be tempted to “complicate” our writing, so that it “sounds academic,” but unless our idea is every bit as complicated as our sentence, we do better to simplify. A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 50 Common Academicitis  Academic writing, in particular, lends itself to a few common but problematic grammatical constructions. Strong, clear writing assigns the “subject” role to persons, groups of people, or organizations, and uses clear, specific verbs to designate action. Academic writing, all too often, puts abstract concepts in the “subject” role, and assigns them vague actions— usually little more than variants on “to be.” Such constructions might not make trouble if they only appear once or twice in a large writing project, but they tend to come in flocks, and that’s a problem. Overall, we should watch out for the verb “to be” in all its forms, and see if we can rebuild sentences that use it. o There Is / There are: If too many sentences start with “there is” or “there are,” the sentences themselves will be bulky, and the structure will get repetitive.  Example: There are many ethical issues that a social worker must consider. (The sentence’s primary subject is the vague pronoun place-holder “there,” and the primary verb is “are,” a weak verb.)  Example Corrected: Social workers must consider many ethical issues, as codified in the NASW Code of Ethics. (The sentence’s primary subject is “social workers,” a clear, specific category of real people, and the primary verb is “must consider,” a relatively clear and specific verb.) o Another… is…: Another common problem for academic writing is the one that this sentence demonstrates: starting a sentence with “another problem…” or “another way…”. This sentence structure quickly gets repetitive, and it detracts from our argument by transforming it into more of a list. Perhaps even more importantly, though, it’s grammatically complicated, and in a way that will create contorted sentences, not to mention errors.  Example: Another common problem for academic writing is the “another… is…” construction. (The sentence’s subject is “problem,” a vague, abstract concept, and the verb is “is,” a weak verb.)  Example Corrected: The “another… is…” construction can also cause trouble in academic writing. (Here, the sentence’s subject is the phrase “the ‘another… is…’ construction,” a clear and specific concept, and the verb phrase is “can cause trouble,” which is strong and specific.) o Nominalizations: Like their name, nominalizations transform a verb (to nominalize) into a noun, by adding a suffix like “-tion.” Nominalizations tempt us because they compact an action into a one-word kernel, but used together, they create opacity, as well as proliferating “of the” clauses. For a humorous discussion of nominalizations and how they impede clear writing, see Helen Sword’s column on “Zombie Nouns.”  Example: The separation between producers and their means of production, the commodification of labor, and the private ownership of means of A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 51 production on the basis of the control of capital (commodified surplus), determined the basic principle of appropriation and distribution of surplus (citation withheld). (The sentence’s subjects are “separation” and “ownership,” both abstract nominalizations, and huge bundles of prepositional phrases crowd the space between them and their verb, “determined.”)  Example Corrected: Those in power appropriate and control surplus by separating producers from their means of production, turning labor into a commodity, and only allowing those with great capital to own the means of production. (The sentence’s main subject is “those in power,” a specific group of people, and it appears right next to the main verbs, “appropriate” and “control.” This construction sets up a clear actor and action, a relationship that helps the reader make sense of what follows. The nominalization “production” remains—nominalizations are handy sometimes, but it’s best to get rid of the other 7 nominalized verbs in the above example!) o Passive Voice: Because they remove a sentence’s subject and create a “to be” verb, passive voice constructions are weaker, and make reading more difficult. That means they should be avoided, except where required, and even then, there are correct and incorrect usages. For further information, see the Purdue OWL page on Passive Voice.  Passive Voice Used Incorrectly: “That means they should be avoided.” Yes, this guide itself is not immune. For some examples that demonstrate how to change passive to active voice, see the Purdue OWL page here.  Passive Voice Used Correctly—to describe data-collection activity: “Fourteen subjects were interviewed.” For more examples of useful passive-voice moments, see the Purdue OWL page on Using Passive Voice. Back to Top Return to the Previous Section, Continue to the Next Section, Why Revise? Conclusion A WRITING GUIDE FOR SOCIAL WORK 52 Conclusion: Where Do I Go From Here? This guide has attempted to help us hone our writing process by offering best practices, examples, and exercises for each step, but we should remember that the project of “learning to write” never ends. Each of us will continue to learn for exactly as long as we continue to write and think critically. This ongoing process can sometimes be painful, but more often it will offer us new ways to re-evaluate our work earlier in each project. Recognize Patterns As we receive feedback, we should learn to recognize when others’ reactions appear to highlight patterns. These patterns can help us at any stage in the process. Example – Outlining: I myself tend to put important claims near the end of my critical writing. At heart I suppose I am a storyteller, so I like to leave the “climax” for late in my work—but this narrative habit makes an argument more difficult to follow, particularly within the U.S. American academic context. Over time, upon feedback from many others, I recognized this pattern, so now, even as I develop my outlines, I tend to ask myself: Does this belong at the end… or at the beginning. Example – Proofreading: Early in my writing career, I had a tendency to use nominalizations. A pattern of feedback—which didn’t always identify nominalizations themselves—gradually taught me to recognize when my writing was becoming needlessly abstract and stilted. I learned to eliminate nominalizations before I learned the name for them, by looking for those stilted sentences in my proofreading process. Keep Up a Dialogue Writing can often feel like an isolated and isolating practice, something we do alone in front of a computer. We may need a patch of silence in order to get words on the page, but we should also actively cultivate collegial relationships with our fellow students. “Revising buddies” can help us develop best practices much more effectively than our instructors’ comments on our papers (which often arrive too late to help us improve any one specific project). Every paper develops an argument, and every paper also participates in a conversation. It’s easy to forget that second part, but collegial relationships can help. Further Resources This guide has focused on one primary, specific writing situation: writing as a student within