Advanced development economics, Research methods, Lecture notes of Development Economics

Download Advanced development economics, Research methods and more Lecture notes Development Economics in PDF only on Docsity! Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 1 UNIT ONE: FUNDAMENTAL OF RESEARCH METHOD 1.1. The Meaning and Characteristics of Research According to Kaoul (1984:10), then term “research “is defined as, “A systematic attempt to obtain answers to meaningful questions about phenomena or events through the application of scientific procedures.” It is an objective impartial, empirical or logical analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or theories”. Research may result to some extent in prediction and control of events that may be consequences or of specific phenomena. The above definition ascertains the fact that:  A research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem,  It is a scientific endeavor that seeks to integrate and systematize its findings and concerned with the objective verification of generalizations based on logical analyses of problems with the help appropriate methodologies. Characteristics of Research According to best (1977:9) research has the following basic characteristics. 1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. It may attempt to answer a question or to determine the relation between two or more variables. 2. Research emphasizes the development of generalization, principles, or theories what will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. 3. Research is based upon observation experiences or empirical evidence. Research rejects revelation and dogma as methods of establishing knowledge and accepts only what can be verified by observation. 4. Research demands accurate observation and description the researcher uses quantitative numerical measuring devices, the most precise means of description. 5. Although research activity may by at times be somewhat random and unsystematic it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely a blind, shotgun investigation – trying something to see what happens. 6. Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem and how others have investigated it. He has searched the related literaturecarefully. He is also thoroughly grounded in the terminology, the concepts and the technical skill necessary to understand and analyses the data that he gathers. 7. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions reached. The researcher attempts to eliminate personal bias. 8. Research is characterized by parent and unhurried activity. It is rarely that the researcher accepts disappointment and discouragement as he pursues the answers to difficult questions. 9. Research is carefully recorded and reported. The written report and accompanying data are made available to the scrutiny of other scholars. Any competent scholar will have the information necessary to analyze, evaluate, and even replicate the study. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 2 1.2. Objectives of Research The main objective of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. In particular, research is conducted to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think or research objectives as falling into either of the following broad groupings. 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies,) 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies), 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies), 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables such studies are known as hypothesis –testing research studies). 5. Research is intended to equip the researcher with the following scholarly 1.3. Motivation in Research People are motivated to conduct researches for a number of reasons. According to kothari (1990:2), the possible motives for doing research may emanate from one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits. 2. Desire to face the challenge solving the unsolved problems i.e. concern over practical problems initiates’ research. 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. 4. Desire to be of service to society. 5. To meet government directives or policies or other employment conditions. 1.4. Human Inquiry and Science Inquiry is a natural activity. People seek general understanding about the world around them. Much of what people know, they know by agreement (Agreement Reality) rather than by direct, personal experience / experiential reality).In day –to –day inquiry, we often make mistakes, but scientific inquiry offers protection against such mistakes: Whereas we often observe inaccurately, such errors are avoided in science by making observation a careful and deliberate activity. Sometimes we jump to general conclusions on the basis of only a few observations, but scientists avoid such overgeneralization through Replication, i’e repeating studies. Once a conclusion has been reached, we sometimes ignore evidence that contradicts that conclusion, only paying attention to evidence that confirms our initial conclusion. Whenever we are confronted with contradictory evidence, all of us endeavor to explain away the contradictions. Often this involves assuming facts not actually observed i.e deduced information. Scientists, on the other hand, commit themselves to a set of observations to be made regardless of whether a pattern seems to emerge early. They also make further observation to test those assumptions. Sometimes people simply reason illogically. Scientist avoids this by being as careful and as deliberate in their reasoning as in their observation. Moreover the, public nature of science means that scientist has their colleagues liking over their shoulders. This critical role of colleagues also protects scientists Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 5 5. Quantitative Vs Qualitative research: Some authorities divide research in to quantitative and qualitative. A. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.It is applicable to phenomena that can be, expressed terms of quantity. B. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon- phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind. For example studies relating to human behavior fall in to this category of research.  Qualitative research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires by applying the techniques that include focus group interviews, in depth interviews, word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.  Attitude or opinion researchi.e, research designed to find out how people feel or what they about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. 6. Conceptual Vs empirical research. Research can also be divided into conceptual and empirical. A. Conceptual research relies on some abstract ideas or theory,  It involves watching or observing various behaviors and patterns.  It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. B. Empirical research relies on experience or observation.  More complicated forms of quantitative research are experimental research.  It is also called mathematical modeling research.  It usually involves large sets of data that involves the process of developing equations and using statistical techniques to understand the relations between the data (example, data from a computer at a check-out counter in the super market).  It is a process of manipulating one variable to see the impact on other variables  It is generally used by investigators who are interested in coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is data- base research and sometimes called as” experimental” research. 7. Positivist versus Interpretivist A. Positivist: a positivist approach is usually associated with natural science research and involves empirical testing.  Positivism states that only phenomena which we can know through our senses (sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste) can really produce "knowledge".  It promotes the idea of experimentation and testing to prove or disprove hypotheses (deductive) and then generates new theory by putting facts together to generate "laws" or principles (inductive).  Positivists suggest that this kind of research can be "value free" Finally, positivist research is about objective rather than subjective (normative) statements and only the objective statements are seen to be the proper domain of scientists. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 6 B. Interpretivist: contrasting this with the idea of "interpretivism", this is much more common in the social sciences, in which business and management belongs.  It involve people as well as things, the interpretivist argument promotes the idea that subjective thought and ideas are valid.  An interpretivist researcher aims to see the world through the eyes of the people being studied, allowing them multiple perspectives of reality, rather than the "one reality" of positivism. 8. Survey Research We have put in ‘surveys’ as a special category because, while they represent a research methodology, they can also be used to answer questions both from the ‘measurement’ and the ‘understanding’ perspective. Essentially, surveys are a tool to ask a standard set of questions to a representative population.  They are very flexible.  They can be sent through the mail or electronically.  They can be carried out by an interviewer who notes down the respondents’ answers on a form or you can get students to fill in surveys during a class. 9. Action research Action research is a complex research process that has been used in a wide variety of education, social welfare and educational settings.  Basically it involves undertaking research into one’s own practice with the aim of improving it.  In principle it could be carried out by any individual or group.  Action research is unlike other forms of research in two ways. Firstly, the researchers are directly concerned with the social situation they are investigating, instead of standing outside it and looking in. However, to help them think more clearly and avoid bias, they often use an outsider as consultant or ‘critical friend’. Secondly, while most research tries not to affect the situation being researched, action research aims to intervene and to change part of the process. These changes are then monitored and analysed to form part of the findings. 10. Case Studies Case studies are intended to provide a focused assessment of causal relationships, contributory or otherwise, between the intervention and specific outcomes or impacts. In order to conduct a case study it is necessary to have: 1) specific needs or issues of certain individuals or groups; 2) allocation of several activities to address these issues; 3) response to the need or issue. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 7 11. Some other types of research. All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above types, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, or the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one time research or longitudinal research. In the former case, the research is confined to a single-time period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time periods. Research can be field- setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can be as well being understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or in depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go droop into the courses of things or events that interest us. Using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. Historical research is a type of descriptive research that attempts to establish facts through meaningful and organized record of events so as to derive conclusions concerning past events. The purpose of historical research is to find connections between events in the past and variables in the present by means of critical review of evidences. Tracer study (follow-up study): It is a type of explanatory study that aims at investigating the subsequent development of individual of individual or unit after a specified treatment or condition. Tracer study is used to establish patterns of change in the past so as to predict future patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected about subjects and environment. For example, researcher can conduct a tracer study concerning the outputs (former graduates) of Addis Ababa commercial college. This will help him/her to investigate or understand whether all of its graduates are employed or not, whether there is a mismatch between the raining he graduates received and the type of jobs they are handing and whether there is a need for changes in the college’s curricula, programs, training methods, and training faculties to mention some of them only. 1.6. Differences in Underlying Research Techniques, Research Methods, and Research Methodology 1.6.1. Research Methods Vs Research Techniques Authorities have tried differentiating between research methods and research techniques. In this regard, kothari (1990:9) has succinctly put their difference as follows. A. Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood from the details given in the following chart. B. Research techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 10 Alternatively the following summarized steps can also be followed. Define the research problem and establish research objectives Determine the sources of information to fulfill the research objectives Consider the costs and benefits of the research effort Decide the methodology and methods to be used to collect different types of data. Gather the relevant data from secondary or primary sources or both Analyze and interpret and summarize the results Effectively communicate the results for decisions markers Each of these stages is dependent upon others. In other words, the stages of the research overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. At times, The first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. 1.8. Criteria of a Good Research Any scientific research is expected to satisfy the following criteria. 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for father advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield result that are as objective as possible. 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness. Flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. 5. The analysis of date should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the method of analysis used should be a appropriate. The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully. 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. Summarizing the above stated criteria of a scientific research leads to derivation of the qualities of good research as follows.  Good research is systematic. It means that research is structured with specified steps to be under taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.  Good Research is logical. This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise.  Good Research is Empirical. It implies that research is related basically to one more aspects of a real situations and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.  Good research is replicable. This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating he study and thereby building a sound for decisions. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 11 UNIT TWO: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL 2.1. Selecting the Research Topic The range of potential topics for social research is a broad as social behavior. The general topic or research problem of a given study may be suggested by either some practical concern or by some intellectual interest or by both as is often the cause. Among the important factors influencing the researcher’s choice of a research problem, the following may be pointed out here:His/her personal inclination and value judgments, and certain social conditions may exert pressure to select one topic over another (e.g. prestige, recognition, material reward, availability of funds, etc.). Besides limiting the researcher’s freedom in selecting the research topic, the above factors are likely to introduce bias into the study. In developing countries such as Ethiopia we are more concerned with applied rather than with basic research, we will here attempt to identify some of the most important criteria that researchers need to consider carefully in selecting their research topics. The following seven criteria could be considered: 1. Topic Relevance:- the topic should be, as much as possible, relevant to the particular community or society. In other words, it should address a priority problem. In ascertaining the relevance of a topic, the following questions could be asked:  How big is the problem?  Who is affected by it?  How severe is the problem? 2. Avoidance of Duplication:- Developing countries cannot afford to expend valuable resources or similar studies on the same topic. It is important for us to find out, before deciding to carry out a study, whether the proposed topic has been researched already. If it has, there may still be some room for studies aimed at filling gaps in existing knowledge about the problem. 3. Feasibility:- Having chosen the topic, one also needs to consider the availability of resources (Local, regional, national, and external) such as time, manpower, equipment, money, etc) that will be needed to carry out the study. 4. Acceptability:- the proposed study has the greatest chance of succeeding if it is acceptable to and support the first is political acceptability, while the second refers to cultural acceptability. 5. Applicability:- in applied research, the concern is obviously with whether or not the findings of the study would be applied to resolution /amelioration of practical problems. Thought should be given to the chances of implementing findings. 6. Cost-effectiveness:- are the resources that are to be expended on the study worthwhile given the results that we expect? 7. Timeliness:- will the findings be available in time for us (or policy-makers) to make the necessary decisions for action? Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 12 2.2. The Meaning of a Research Problem The focal point of every research activity is a research problem. Research starts with a felt difficulty. It takes place when there is a problematic situation and a need to solve the problem. Thus, a researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that is becomes susceptible to research. But what is a research problem? According to kotari (1990:30), a research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution it. Often we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with. Conditions for a Research Problem 1. There should be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or a problem. 2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem. 3. There must be an alternative means (or the course of action) for obtaining the objectives(s) one wishes to attain, this means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem. 4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives; this means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives. 5. There must be some environment (s) to which the directly pertains. These are usually called as the basic components of a research problem. These components of a research problem entail that the research problem requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e, to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment. 2.3. Selecting the Problem In the research process, the first and for most step is the choice of a notable problem for investigation. The identification of a research problem is an important phase of the entire research process. Therefore, a considerable care must be taken while selecting g a research problem. It requires a great deal of time, energy and logical thinking on the part of the researcher. Practically speaking, several factors deter the selection of suitable problems by the researchers, especially for the beginners. These include limited knowledge of the research process, unfamiliarity with the areas in which the research is needed, or lack of readiness for problem selection, etc.. Sources of Selection of Research Problem There are some important sources, which are helpful to a researcher for selecting a problem. These include the following. 1. Professional Experience: one of the most fruitful sources of problems for beginning are his/her own experiences as a professional in a given field. The day-to- day observation of the incidences in the working place and out of the working environment, which include the experiences of his/her Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 15 he/she wants to verify its conclusions or to extend the validity of its findings in a situation entirely different from the previous one. 3. Is the Problem Significant? The questions of significance of the problem usually relates to what a researcher hopes to accomplish in a particular study. Is it so important? What new knowledge does he hope to add to the sum total of what is known? And what value is this knowledge likely to have? When all these questions are answered clearly by the researcher, the problem should be considered for investigation. The researcher should show that the study is likely to fill in the gaps in the existing knowledge, to help resolve some of the inconsistencies in previous research, or to help in the reinterpretation of the known facts. 4. Is the Problem Feasible for The Particular Researcher? In addition to the above-stipulate points, the feasibility of the research problem should also be examined from the point of view of the researcher’s personal aspects as stated hereunder. a) Researcher Competence: The problem should be in an area in which the researcher is qualified and competent. Before indulging into investigation of the problem, the researcher has to make sure that he/she is well acquainted with the existing theories. Concepts and laws relate to the problem. He/she must also possess the necessary skills and competencies that may be needed to develop, administer, and interpret. The necessary data-gathering tools. What is more, he/she needs to consider whether he has the necessary knowledge of research design and statistical procedure that may be required to carry out the research through its completion. b) Interest and Enthusiasm: The researcher has to make sure that the problem really interests him/her. He/she must also be truly enthusiastic about the problem. If the problem is chosen properly by observing these point, the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s lab our. c) Financial Considerations: Research is an expensive endeavor which requires a great deal of money to invest. In this regard, the researcher should ascertain whether he/she has the necessary financial resources to curry on the investigation of the selected problem. An estimate of the expenditure involved in data-gathering equipment, printing test materials, travel, and clerical assistance needs to be specified. Furthermore, the possible sources of fund must be consulted ahead if time. d) Time Requirements: Research should be undertaken within a given scope of time, which was allocated with careful analysis of the prevailing situations. Each and every activity of a research process requires time, particularly; it is worthwhile to plan for the time that will be needed for the development and administration of tolls, processing and analysis of data, and writing of the research report. While allocating time for a research project, care should be taken for the researcher’s other engagements or commitments, the respondents’ accessibility, the expiry data of the required dare, etc. e) Administrative Considerations: The researcher has to pay to all administrative matters that are necessary to bring his/her study to its full completion. In this regard, the researcher should consider the kinds of data, equipment, specialized personnel, and administrative facilities that are needed to complete the study successfully. The researcher must assure whether the pertinent data are available and accessible to him/her. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 16 2.6. The Hypotheses Once the selection and definition of the problem have been accomplished, the derivation of working hypotheses is the most important step in the research process. 2.6.1. What is Hypothesis? According to Bailey/1982:41), the term hypothesis is defined as “a proposition that is stated in testable form and predicts a particular relationship between two (or more) variables”. Similarly, Webster’s (1968) defines hypothesis as a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. The above definitions ascertain the fact that a hypothesis is tentative explanation for which the evidence necessary for testing it is at least potentially available. By test we mean either to confirm it to our satisfaction or to prove it wrong. Hypotheses are conjectural statements that are amenable to empirical investigation e.g. The Statement that 60 Present or, more of the residents of Addis Ababa attend worship services at least once a week is a statement of purported fact and can therefore be tested. This statement could be taken as a hypothesis. A statement, which is a value judgment, will not be considered as good hypothesis. E.g. Accounting is a more important subject than Leadership. The foregoing examples entail that research hypotheses need to be value-neutral and be capable of being proven right or wrong on the basis of empirical evidence. Suppose a researcher plans to conduct research on the following topic. “ Factors that contribute to lower achievement in ESLCE by female students than male students in Tigray Regional state”. To search for the prevailing factors that affect the performance of females more adversely than the performance of males, the researcher may suggest the following hypotheses. 1. Female students receive significantly less support to their education than that of their male counterparts. 2. Female students sustain significantly higher fashion role stereotypes in schools than do their male counterparts. It should be noted that these hypotheses are taken as tentative solutions to the problem with the understanding that the investigation in due course may lead either to their retention or rejection. 2.6.2. Derivation of Hypotheses. The inspiration for hypotheses comes from a number of sources which include the following. 1. Experience: The daily life experiences or the day-to-day observation of the correlation (relationship) between various phenomena leads the researcher to hypothesize a relationship and to conduct a study to see if his/her suspicions are confirmed. 2. Past Research or Common Beliefs: hypotheses can also be inspired by tracing past research or by commonly held lay beliefs. For example, a number of studies in America have shown that college freshmen are more politically conservative than college seniors, suggesting a correlation between year in school and political belief. Such hypothesis could be used either to replicate the past studies or to extend the test of a familiar hypothesis to a sample of person with different characteristics (E.g College students in other country) Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 17 3. Through Direct analysis of Data or Deduction from Existing theory. Hypotheses may also be generated through direct analysis of data in the field or may be deduced from a formal theory, through attentive reading the researcher may be able to get acquainted with relevant theories, principles and facts that may alert him/her to identify valid hypotheses for his/her study. 2.6.3. Importance of Hypothesis A well- grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages. 1. Represents specific objectives, which determine the nature of the data needed to test the propositions. 2. Offers basis for selecting the sample the research procedures, and the statistical analysis needed. 3. Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from becoming too broad? 4. Sets a frame work for reporting the conclusion of the study. Criteria of Usable Hypotheses Hypotheses can be useful if and only if they are carefully formulated. Traverse (1978) has forwarded seven criteria for good hypotheses. These include. 1. Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely stated. 2. Hypotheses should be formulated in such a way that they can be tested or verified. They should be testable. 3. Hypotheses should state explicitly the expected relationship between variables. 4. Hypotheses should be limited in scope. Hypotheses of global significance are not usable as they are not specific and simple for testing and drawing conclusions. 5. Hypotheses should be consistent with most known facts. Hypotheses should be grounded in the well established facts. Theories or laws. 6. Hypotheses should be stated in simple terms. The simplicity of the statements makes it easily understandable to others(readers), easily testable, and a clear and comprehended report at the completion of the study. 7. Hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. Null and Alternative Hypotheses Research Hypothesis (Alternative Hypothesis): is generally what the analyst tries to prove or support by gathering evidence. In statistics, this is called the alternative hypothesis, also known as the research hypothesis (symbol H1). Null hypothesis (symbol H0), are the hypothesis that complements the alternative or hypothesis of equality.. The statistical hypothesis statements are written as follows: Ho: this is the null hypothesis (non-directional hypothesis) H1: this is the alternative hypothesis( positive or negative hypothesis) The null hypothesis (Ho) is a non-directional hypothesis that contains the equal sign, thus it is sometimes referred to as the hypothesis of no difference or no effect Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 20 2.2. Statement of the problem  Statement of the Problem: Statement of the problem elaborates about the problem. It attempts to focus on a clear goal. More specifically, statement of the problem is targeted towards the following: Stating the background facts, which justify the study to be in order, and developing key research questions which may show the direction of the whole exercise. 2.3. Research question or hypothesis  Craft basic research questions/hypothesis that helps to answer the research problem.  The research questions should be limited in numbers (usually 3 to 5).  Not use combined sentences in the research questions.  It should be understandable and do not use jargon wards.  Use wh wards and avoid yes/no questions. 2.4. Research objectives  The research objectives should be describe the objectives of conducting the research being proposed  First the general objectives should be stated and then state the specific objectives intended to be accomplished by the research. 2.5. Significance of the study While preparing the research proposal, the researcher has to incorporate the justification for the need of the research. He/she should justify the importance of the study: as to how the results of his/her study still be useful to the beneficiaries. The following are some of the points in which the justification stresses. a) A wide time gap exists between the earlier study and the present one. The need for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will necessitate for replicating the study. b) Lack/shortage of information on the topic. In some instance information in the area may be missing or scant. Therefore, the present study may be useful in shading new light on the problem or in filling the gap in the knowledge pertaining to the given area. 2.6. Scope of the Study: Boundary of the study should be made clear with reference to the scope of the study by specifying the content and geographical study areas to which the research will be confined. 2.7. Limitation of the Study Document the limitations that could prevent you from successfully completing the project .Although a researcher tries his best to design his research as properly as possible, there are externals (uncontrollable) variables that confront his investigation and affect his conclusion. In his proposal, the researcher has to specify such mitigating factors that hinder the attainment his objectives fully. Such anticipated restrictions are referred as limitations of the study. The possible sources of the limitations of the study include. a. Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the researcher adapted. b. Lack/limited of access to the right data. c. Poor choice/development/ delivery of instruments d. Sampling restriction e. Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas f. Another constraint might be the amount time you have available to do research. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 21 2.8. Definition of Technical Terms or Concepts (Operational Definitions of Variables) The technical terms or words and phrases having special meanings need to be defined operationally. Operational definitions are not the dictionary definition of variables. Rather, it refers to the manner in which variables are measured in your study. Much more precise and unambiguous definitions of variables can be stated in operational form, which stipulates the operation by which they can be observed and measured. 3. Review of Related Literature The theoretical and empirical frame work from which the problem arises must be briefly described. A brief summary of relate studies found in journals, magazines, abstracts and reports should be made. This provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already known. It also helps to avoid the risk of duplication of what has been done. 4. Research Methods/Methodology  Population and sampling  Methods of data collection  Method of data analysis 4.1. Population and Sampling a. Population: It is the universe (total members about which the research is planned to be carried on). The population is environment from which the researcher may draw the sample. b. Sampling: In the research process, the researcher often comes across unmanageable size of population in which case he/she may be compelled to draw representative sample by using different sampling techniques.  Sample is a part of population that represents the characteristics of the total population to be stated.  A research proposal should clearly indicate the population from which the researcher will draw his/her sample, and describe the procedure he/she will sample, and describe the procedure he/she will use to select the sample. c. Sampling Tools: In order to gather evidence or data for the study, the researcher has developed appropriate and reliable instrument(s).  The researcher must be well versed in the use of these tools or instruments.  The research proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool(s) for collecting data. 4.2. Methods of Data Analysis: In this section the researcher describes how to organize analyze and interpret data. The details of the statement techniques and the rationale for using such techniques should be described in the research proposal. The research proposal should clearly show appropriate instrument to be used during the analysis. Examples may be: SPSS, ANOVAs, Regression, mean, median, graphs, charts etc. to be used for analysis should be clearly shown. 5. Presenting the Layout of the Research(Organization of the Paper) This section should give a brief outline and short description of the chapters of the dissertation/thesis. Each chapter should be linked to a research objective. The following structure might be used: Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 22 i. Chapter 1 – Introduction (based on the content of this proposal) ii. Chapter 2 – Background / Overview (summary of literature review) iii. Chapter 3 – Research methodology (explanation and motivation of research method to be used) iv. Chapters [n] – The body of the research v. Chapter [last chapter – Conclusion (Show how the objectives were achieved) vi. For each chapter, a brief description should be given to explain the intended content. 6. Time Schedule: The researcher should also prepare a realistic time schedule for completing the study within the time available.  Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates for the completion of each phase help the researcher to use his time systematically. 7. Budget Schedule: The research proposals which are submitted to governmental or non- governmental organizations for financial assistance should also include a budget schedule.  This is a financial breakdown that helps to estimate the cost of the study. 8. Bibliography: This is a section where a list of books, journals and other documents is offered.  The researcher should list all reference materials that he has consulted in selecting the problem and which he may use during the conduct the study. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 25 3.2. Recording Your Reading As a researcher, you have to be meticulous right from the beginning of your research project up to the end and even beyond your project. This will save you time and trouble in the long run. This is particularly important when it comes to recording your reading. Finding information in the first place can be hard enough. Finding it again sometimes after wards can be even harder unless your methods of recording and filing are thorough and systematic. Therefore, you should resolve right from start to note down full details of everything you read. These details should include the author or authors, the title of the paper, report or book, the date of publication, if it is a book or report, the publisher and place of publication, if it is a chapter in an edited book, the title and editor of the book, and the page numbers of the chapter and if it is a paper in a journal, the title of the journal, volume and issue number and pages. 3.3. Note taking (reviewing the Literature) Once you have identified relevant sources of information, you have to start note taking. The process of note-taking can be done either in the form of paraphrasing or directly quoting the author’s ideas. Paraphrasing Paraphrasing may be defined as “restating or rewarding a passage from a text, giving the same meaning in another form” (Hult, 1996, P, 43). The main objective of paraphrasing is to present an author’s ideas in your own words. Often paraphrasing fails due to misunderstanding of the passage by the reader or partial understanding of the passage and trying to guess at the meaning rather than fully understanding it. Therefore accurate paraphrasing can be achieved through close reading and complete understanding of what is read. To facilitate your paraphrasing, Hult (1996,P.43) suggests five guidelines as follows. 1. Place the information found in the source in a new order. 2. Break the complex ideas into smaller units of meaning. 3. use concrete, direct vocabulary in place of technical jargon found in the original source. 4. Vary the sentence patterns. 5. use synonyms for the words in the source. How to paraphrase appropriately The following examples, extracted from Hult (1996, PP46-48) are aimed at illustrating acceptable and unacceptable paraphrasing. Original Passage: During the last two years of my medical course and the period which I spent in the hospitals as house physician, I found time, by means of serious encroachment on my night’s rest. To bring to completion a work on the history of scientific research in to the thought world of st. Paul, to revise and enlarge the question of the Historical Jesus for the second edition, and together with world of to prepare an edition of Bach’s preludes and fugues for the organ, giving with each piece directions for its rendering (Albert Schweitzer, out of My life and Thought. New York: Mentor, 1963, P.94). A Good Paraphrase: Albert Schweitzer observed that by staying up late at night, first as a medical student and then as a “house physician” he was able to finish several major works. Including a historical book on the intellectual world of st. Paul, a revised and expanded second edition of question of the historical Jesus, and a new edition of Bach’s organ preludes and fugues complete with interpretative notes, written collaboratively with wider (Schweitzer, 1963, P94). [Note: this paraphrase is very complete and appropriate: it does not use the author’s own words, except in one instance, which is acknowledged by quotation marks. The student has included a parenthetical citation that indicates to Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 26 the reader the paraphrase was taken from page 94 of the work by Schweitzer. The reader can find complete information on the work by turning to the bibliography at the end of the student’s paper.] Referring To others in the Text:- In Harvard system, at every point in the text at which reference is made to other writers, the name of the writer and the year of publication should be included. It is also advisable to include page number. If the surname of the author is part of the sentence, then the year of the publication will appear in brackets. Example, Bloom (1963, P16) describes this…… if the name of the author is not part of the sentence, then both the surname and the year of publication with page number are in brackets example. In a recent study (smith, 1990, P36) it is described as…. if there are three or less authors then their family names should be given, if there are more than three authors the first author’s family name should be given, followed by et al, example Taylor, Barbara and Jones (1991, P10) it is suggested……..In a recent study (barbar and Jons, 1993,P10) it is suggested……The most recent work (Barbara et. Al. 1995,P16) shows that………. 3.3.1. Incorporating Direct Quotes At times you may want to use direct quotes in addition to paraphrases and summaries. To incorporate direct quotes smoothly, observe the following general principles. 1. When your quotations are four lines in length or less. Surround them with quotation marks and incorporate them into your text. When your quotations are longer than four lines, set them of off from the rest of the text by indenting from the left and right margins. You do not need to use quotation marks. With such block quotes, follow the block quote with the punition found in the source. 2. Introduce quotes using a verb tense that is consistent with the tense of the quote. 3. Use brackets for explanations or interpretations not in the original quote. (“evidence reveals that boys are higher on conduct disorder [behavior directed toward the environment] than girls.”) 3.4. Organizing Your Literature Review Once you have finished collecting and reviewing the literature, you are then required to organize the information in a way that suites to your interest. To this end, it is useful to plan the review out beforehand in not form so that the right order and flow of argument, proposition and debate is achieved. Experience shows that taking precautions to the following points will lead to effective organization of the related literature. 1. Develop an outline or topic headings on which discussions of a review of the related literature follows. 2. Categorize the evidences of your review in light of tour outline. 3. Whenever necessary, try to ask your supervisor, manger, colleagues or fellow students for advice as to what is expected and as to how you can proceed organizing. 4. Present a brief summary of your review at the end of this section. Reviewing the literature checklist A literature review is not just a question of displaying knowledge and erudition. Rather, it is evaluate by the extent to which the survey illuminates and carries forward the research focus and concerns. Therefore, when the literature survey has been written checking the following points as recommended by Birly and Moreland (1998,P96) are relevant. Has the emphasis been given to the most important and relevant authors and works? Are the sources up to date? Is the survey critical of authors and their work where appropriate? Does the literature review focus on the research and questions? Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 27 UNIT FOUR: - RESEARCH DESIGN 4.1. Meaning of Research Design Following the selection of the problem in very specific and concrete terms, you are required to prepare a research design. According to seltiz et al (1962:50), a “research design” is defined as” the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” In other words, the research design is the conceptual structural within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (kotharl, 1990:39). Accordingly, the design incorporates a framework of what the researcher is going to do from writing the basic questions and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. More specifically, the design decision deals with answers to the following questions: 1. What is the study about? 2. Why is the study being done? 3. Where will the study be carried out? 4. What types of data are required? 5. Where can the required data be found? 6. What periods of time will the study include? 7. What will be the sample design? 8. What techniques of data collection will be used? 9. How will the data be analyzed? 10. In what style will the report be prepared? When it is seen from the viewpoints of the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into the following major parts: a) The sampling design: Which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study; b) The Observational design: Which relates the conditions under which the observations are to be made; c) The statistical design: Which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed and. d) The Operational Design: Which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out. 4.2. Need for Research Design In any research endeavor, the preparation of thoroughly thought research design is needed for the following reasons: 1. Because it helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form where by it will be possible for him to look for flaws and in adequacies; 2. Because it facilitates the smooth running of various research operations; 3. Because it makes research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money; 4. Because it serves as a framework for the process of reliable and valid data collection, and data analysis; Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 30 are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure representation of different types of experience. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants who are carefully selected. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents may be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. 2. Research Design in Case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies. Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or of a group. Whereas; diagnostic research studies are characterized in determining the frequency with which something occurs or associate with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research studies. On the other hand, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situations are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social researches are grouped under this category. As far as the preparation of the research design is concerned the descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research studies can be discerned in the following table. Table 4.1 Difference Between Exploratory & Descriptive Designs. Research Design Type of study Exploratory / formulative Descriptive/ Diagnostic (i) Overall design Flexible design (design must provide opportunity for considering different aspects of the problem) Rigid design (design must make enough, provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability) (ii) Sampling design (iii) Observational design Non-probability sampling design (purposive or judgment instruments for collection of data. Probability sampling design (random sampling) Structured or well thought out instruments for collection of data. (iv) Operational design No fixed decisions about the operational procedures Advanced decisions about operational procedures. Source: C.R Kothari, Research methodology, Methods &Techniques, 1990,p49. 3. Research Design in Case of Experimental Research Studies. Experimental studies (or hypothesis –testing research studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variability. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. In particular, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments that ensure absence of bias and increase reliability. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 31 4.4.1. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs Professor Fisher who is usually called the father of experimental design has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: the principle of Replication; the principle of randomization; and the principle of local control. 1. The principle of Replication: This principle refers to the repetition of the experiment more than once. Therefore, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. This, in turn, helps to increase the statistical accuracy of the experiments. The following intends to illustrate the principle of replication in detail. Suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis, but if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of each of these parts and the other variety in the remaining half of each parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. The result so obtained experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. The results so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. 2. The principle of randomization: Conduction of experiment under this principle provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance” for example if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. This makes our results unrealistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique, that is we may apply randomization principle and protect out study against the effect of the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the given case.) as such, through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error. 3. The principle of Local Control: Under this principle, the extraneous factor, the known source f variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary. This need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments (varieties if rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our case), and experimental error. On other words according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In short, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 32 UNIT FIVE: SAMPLING DESIGN 5.1. Census and Sample Survey All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observation increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Therefore, when the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources involved. At times, this method is practically beyond the reach of ordinary researchers. Perhaps, government is the only institution which can get the complete enumeration carried out. Even the government adopts this in very rare cases such as population census conducted once in a decade. Further, many a time it is not possible to examine every item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total population. In such cases there is no utility of census surveys. However, it needs to be emphasized that when the universe is a small one, it is no use resorting to a sample survey. When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items. The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’. Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is <N) of this population is selected according to some rule for studying some characteristic of the population, the group consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’. Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be selected and of what size such a sample would be. Implications of a Sample Design A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study. 5.2. Steps in Sample Design While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points: (i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 35 the fact that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way in such a design. In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way. 5.3.1. Characteristics of a Good Sample Design From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample design as under: (a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. (b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error. (c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. (d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. (e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. 5.3.2. Different Types of Sample Designs There are different types of sample designs based on two factors. 1. The representation basis and 2. The element selection technique. 1. The representation basis:-On the representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling. 2. The element selection technique: - On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’. Thus, sample designs are basically of two types viz., non-probability sampling and probability sampling. We take up these two designs separately. Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has chance of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his/her choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole. For instance, if economic condition of people living in a state is to be studied, a few towns and/or villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgment of the organizers of the study plays an important part in this sampling design. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 36 In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favorable to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. There is always the danger of bias entering into this type of sampling technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the necessary experience so as to take sound judgment, the results obtained from an analysis of deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included. Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great or small, is always there. As such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of importance. However, in small inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling. Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are essentially judgment samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative sample. Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. This applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again (Sampling with replacement is used less frequently in which procedure the element selected for the sample is returned to the population before the next Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 37 element is selected. In such a situation the same element could appear twice in the same sample before the second element is chosen). In brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are: (a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another. (b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen. Keeping this in view we can define a simple random sample (or simply a random sample) from a finite population as a sample which is chosen in such a way that each of the NCn possible samples has the same probability, 1/NCn, of being selected. Where: N = Total population, n = sample of size, 1/NCn = Probability of being selected To make it more clear we take a certain finite population consisting of six elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f) i.e., N = 6. Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it. Then there are 6C3 = 20 possible distinct samples of the required size, and they consist of the elements abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef, and def. If we choose one of these samples in such a way that each has the probability 1/20 of being chosen, we will then call this a random sample. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 40 c) it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience. (ii) Interview Method: Personal interview method requires the interviewer asking questions. Generally the interview can be in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons; or telephone interview. Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.  Interview can be of two types-Structured interviews and Unstructured interviews 1. Structured interviews:- involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording; 2. Unstructured interviews: - flexibility in approach to questioning and without following a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information. The interviewer is has much greater freedom to ask. (iii) Questionnaires: A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms, mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. A researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire: General form, Question sequence, Question formulation and wording, a. General form: - can be either structured or unstructured questionnaire. Structure- The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning. Unstructured:- the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of information to be obtained. b. Question sequence:-it must be clear and smoothly-moving, the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent. c. Question formulation and wording:- In general, all questions should meet the following standards: i. should be easily understood; ii. should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time; iii. should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking. (iv) Interview Schedule: It is very much like the questionnaire, with little difference where schedules (containing a set of questions) are filled in by enumerators, Careful selection of enumerators: Intelligent enumerators with the capacity to do cross examination in order to find out the truth very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive. (v) Focus group discussion (FGD): may be called discussion groups or group interviews. Discussion led by a moderator or facilitator who introduces the topic, asks specific questions, controls digressions and stops break-away conversations. 6.3.2. Collection of Secondary Data Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 41 1. Various publications of the central, state are local governments; 2. Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations; 3. Technical and trade journals; 4. Books, magazines and newspapers; 5. Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; 6. Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. In different fields; and 7. Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies etc… Choice and sequence of methods Many researchers tend to use a combination of both open and closed questions, Some begin with preliminary unstructured interviews and continue with the structured format (questionnaire) Question: what are the benefits of starting with unstructured and then move into a structured format? Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 42 UNIT SEVEN: ANALYSIS AND PROCESSING OF DATA 7.1. Data Analysis The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”. 7.2. Processing Operations 1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. 2. Coding (re-coding): Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration.  Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to pre-code the questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight forward key punch from the original questionnaires. 3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. 4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 45 UNIT EIGHT: INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading conclusions maybe drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated. It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he would try to explain his/her findings on the basis of some theory. This may at times result in new questions, leading to further researches. All this analytical information and consequential inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably through research report, to the consumers of research results who may be either an individual or a group of individuals or some public/private organization. 8.1. Meaning of Interpretation Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects: (i) The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and (ii) The establishment of some explanatory concepts. “In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.” Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches. 8.1.1. Why Interpretation? Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research process because of the following reasons: (i) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be maintained. (ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge. (iii)Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings. (iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not have a hypothesis to start with, the Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 46 findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’ interpretation. 8.1.2. Technique of Interpretation The task of interpretation is not an easy job; rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps: 1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated. 2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration. 3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insightinto the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results. 4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate. 8.1.3. Precautions in Interpretation One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analyzed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task of interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct perspective. Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation: 1) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself/herself that (a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good homogeneity; and (c) Proper analysis has been done through statistical methods. 2) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results.  Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the like.  Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses.  In fact, the positive test results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity of the hypothesis”.  The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false generalization may not take place. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 47  He/she should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study. 3) He/she must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of results. 4) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within their limits. 5) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.”2 He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation. 8.2. Significance of Report Writing Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. But the general opinion is in favor of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose. 8.2.1. Different Steps in Writing Report Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (e) preparation of the final bibliography; and Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 50 (a) Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report. (b) Main Text The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Statement of findings and recommendations; 3. The results; 4. The implications drawn from the results; and 5. The summary. 1. Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated. 2. Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the summarized form. 3. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of there port. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 51 research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgment in deciding the outline of his report. “Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he/she states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.” 4. Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again putdown the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human behavior. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below: (a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar circumstances. (b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study. (c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarizes and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable. (d) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results. (c) End Matter At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report. Business Research Methods (ACPF431) Oromia State University –Department of ACPF 2018 52 References Ackoff, Russell.l (1961). The design of Social science Research, Chicago Press. USA Bailey Kenneth D. (1978). Method of Social research, New York Babbie (1973). Survey Research Method. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc, USA. C.R. Kothari. (1990). Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques. Tandon, B.C, Research Methodology in Social Sciences, Chaitanya Publishing House, Allahabad. (1979) Fisher, R. A. (1960). The Design of Experiment 7th Edition, Hafner Publishing Co. New York. Fred N. Kerlinger (1973). Foundation of Behavioral Research, Second Edition, New yourk Green E. Paul, D. S. Tull & Gerald Albaum (1998). Research for Marketing Decisions. Prentice Hall of India, Private Limited, New Delhi. .Jill Hessey and Roger Hussey (1997). Business Research Method . 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