All about organisational behaviour, Study notes of Organization Behaviour

Download All about organisational behaviour and more Study notes Organization Behaviour in PDF only on Docsity! CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO OB Organizational Behavior tries to understand human behaviour in the organization. OB is a part of total management but plays a very important role in every area of management and has been accepted by all the people concerned. The managers now understand that to make their organization more effective, they have to understand and predict the human behaviour in the organization. DEFINITIONS OF OB According to Stephen P Robbins - “Organisational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviours within the organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness”. According to Fred Luthans - “Organisational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding production and control of human behaviour in organization”. Raman J Aldag also define “Organisational behaviour is a branch of the social sciences that seeks to build theories that can be applied to predicting, understanding and controlling behaviour in work organizations”. By analyzing the above definitions, we can define OB as a behavioural Science that states about: • Nature of Man • Nature of the Organization • Knowledge of human would be useful in improving an organization’s effectiveness. NATURE OF OB OB is the study of human behaviour in the organization. Whenever an individual join an organization he/she brings with him/her unique set of personal characteristics, experiences from other organizations and a personal background. At first stage, OB must look at the unique perspective that each individual brings to the work setting. At second stage, OB is to study the dynamics of how the incoming individuals interact with the broader organization. No individual can work in isolation he/she comes into contact with the other individuals and the organization in a variety of ways: 4. The OB must be studied from the perspective of the organization itself because an organization exists before a particular individual joins in and continues to exist after he or she left the organization. Thus, we can say that we cannot study individual behaviour completely without learning something about the organizations. On the other hand, we cannot study the organizations without studying the behaviour of the individuals working in it. This is because the organization influences and is influenced by the people working in it. FOUNDATIONS OF OB The subject OB is based on a few fundamental concepts which are explained below:- 1. Individual Differences: Each person is different from one to another in intelligence, physique, personality, diction, or any such trait. Individual differences mean that management can cause the greatest motivation among employees by treating them differently. If it were not for individual differences, some standard, across-the-board way of dealing with all employees could be adopted and minimum judgment would be required thereafter. It is because of individual External Organization Individual behaviour in Organizational setting Individual Organizational Interaction The Organization External Organization Individual Differences Whole Person Caused Behaviour Human Dignity OB Social System Mutuality of Interests Holistic Concepts to job satisfaction. It helps managers to apply appropriate motivational tools and techniques in accordance with the nature of individual employees. 5. OB helps effective utilization of human resources: OB helps managers to manage the people’s behaviour and the organization effectively. It enables managers to inspire and motivates employees towards high productivity and better results. Contributing Disciplines of OB 1. Psychology: The terms psychology comes from the Greek word ‘Psyche’ meaning soul or spirit. Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain and sometimes change the behaviour of human beings. Psychology studies processes of human behaviour, such as learning, motivation, perception, individual and group decision-making, pattern of influences change in organization, group process, satisfaction, communication, selection and training also such above concepts are used in Organization Behaviour. 2. Anthropology: The term anthropology combines the Greek term ‘anthropo’ meaning man and the noun ending ‘logy’ meaning science. Thus, anthropology can be defined as the science of man. It is also known as ‘science of humanity’. It studies the relationship between individuals and their environment. The major contributions of Anthropology in the field of OB are Comparative values, Comparative attitudes, Cross-culture analysis, Organization environment etc. 3. Political Science: Political science is the branch of social science which deals with political system and political behaviours. In other words, political science helps us to understand the dynamics of power and politics within organizations which includes conflict resolution, group coalition, and allocation of power etc. The main contributions of political science in the field of OB have been concerned mainly with Conflict, Intra-organizational policies and Power. 4. Economics: Economists study the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. The economic conditions of a country have long lasting impact on organizational behaviour. If psychological and economic expectations of employee are met, they are satisfied and become high performers. Economic systems include financial, commercial and industrial activities which have greater influences on the behaviour of the people. 5. Engineering: Engineering also influences organisational behaviour. Some topics are common to engineering as well as organisational behaviour e.g. work measurement, productivity measurement, work flow analysis, work design, job design and labour relations etc. 6. Medical Science: Stress is becoming a very common problem in the organisations. Research shows that controlling the causes and consequences of stress in and out of organisational settings, is important for the wellbeing of the individual as well as the organisations. Medicine helps in the control of stress as well as stress related problems. 7. Sociology: Sociology also has a major impact on the study of organisational behaviour. Sociology makes use of scientific methods in accumulating knowledge about the social behaviour of the groups. Sociology contributes to organisational behaviour through the study of interpersonal dynamics like leadership, group dynamics, communication etc. APPLICATION OF OB IN MANAGEMENT 1. Responding to Globalization Organization in recent days has changed the style of working and tries to spread worldwide. Trapping new market place, new technology or reducing cost through specialization or cheap labour are few of the different reasons that motivates organizations to become global. 2. Managing Workforce Diversity The increasing heterogeneity of organizations with the inclusion of different groups. Whereas globalization focuses on differences among people from different countries. "Workforce diversity has important implications for management practice. Managers will need to shift their philosophy from treating everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to those differences in ways that will ensure employee retention and greater productivity while, at the same time, not discriminating". 3. Improving Quality and Productivity a) Total Quality Management (TQM) It is a philosophy of management that is driven by the constant attainment of customer satisfaction through the continuous improvement of all organizational processes. 1. Intense focus on the customer 2. Concern for continuous improvement 3. Improvement in the quality of everything the organization does 4. Accurate measurement 5. Empowerment of employees. b) Reengineering Reengineering: Reconsiders how work would be done and the organization structured if they were being created from scratch. "It asks managers to reconsider how work would be done and their organization structured if they were starting over". 4. Improving people skills It will help management to better plan and respond to changes in the workplace. Employee relationship is also showing change in the modern era. Employers are no more autocrats and participative style of leadership welcomed. Flexible working hours and increased is authority motivates employees to perform to their best. Management now welcomes upward communication and participation of lower level employees in the decision making process. 5. Stimulating Innovation and Change "Today's successful organizations must foster innovation and master the art of change or they'll become candidates for extinction. An organization's employees can be the impetus for innovation and change or they can be a major stumbling block. The challenge for managers is to stimulate employee creativity and tolerance for change. 6. Work-life Balance Achieving a work-life balance between work and other important aspects of life is a big challenge today in every organization. It can be tough to make time for family and work. Hence, Employers can help employees to achieve work-life balance by instituting policies, procedures, actions, and expectations that enable them to pursue more balanced lives, such as flexible work schedules, company sponsored family events and activities etc. 7. Improving People Skills a satisfied worker may be a high producer or low producer or only an average producer. Satisfaction – productivity relationship - is complex because it is influenced by many variables such as the reward that an employee received. According to the Human Relation School, a happy worker is a productive worker. This was countered by Scott as cited by Ejiogu (1983) who says that morale is no longer considered a prerequisite of high productivity, but that the nature of the relationship between morale and productivity is open to serious questioning. Liphan and and Hoch (1974) are of the opinion that leadership plays a key role in workers’ productivity. According to them, a participating leader is most likely to have a higher level of productivity and morale among the subordinates than an authoritative leader. A model developed by Lawler and Porter tends to suggest that productivity leads to job satisfaction. The model shows that performance leads to job satisfaction, provided the rewards are perceived to the equitable. JOB SATISFACTION AND OTHER VARIABLES A correlation exists between job satisfaction and other variables in the organization. The variables to be considered are: Turnover and absenteeism, Age, Occupation and Community condition. 1. Turnover and Absenteeism: Job satisfaction has a direct correlation with labour turnover. Employees who have low job satisfaction are more likely to leave their employment than those with high job satisfaction. In like manner, employee who have low job satisfaction are more likely to be absent from their job than those with high job satisfaction. 2. Age: A positive correlation also exists between age and job satisfaction. Older workers who have spent more time in the employment or on the job tend to become more satisfied with the job than younger worker who tend to have high expectations of promotion and other conditions. The older worker has become adapted to the system probably due to experiences on the job. 3. Occupation: There exists a positive correlation between occupational level and job satisfaction. Higher level occupation tends to have more job satisfaction than low level occupation. 4. Community Condition: Poor community conditions are expected to pull down job satisfaction while better community conditions lift it. This however is not the case. Study has shown that employees compare their job conditions and community conditions. If they have average job conditions surrounded by poor community conditions such as more slums and more business depression, then their satisfaction is lifted up because they see themselves relatively well off. BENEFITS OF JOB SATISFACTION 1. Gives management an indication of the general levels of satisfaction in the company 2. Job satisfaction surveys bring about valuable communication 3. It brings about improved attitude 4. Job satisfaction surveys are useful ways to determine certain training needs. CHAPTER 2 PERSONALITY • MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY The word personality is derived from Latin word called “persona” means a “mask” or “personare” means “to speak through”. Personality is the characteristics, qualities, skills, competencies and outward appearances of individuals. In other words, personality is a way to respond to people, situations, and things that are consistent (more or less). In short, Personality is the psychological factor that influences individual behavior. Many people view the term personality in the following ways:-  According to Gordon Allport – “personality is the set of traits and behaviors that characterize an individual”.  According to Stephen Robbins – “Personality is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behavior in various situations”.  According to Lawrence Ervin – “Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another”.  According to R B Cattel – “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”.  According to Munn – “Personality as the most characteristic integration of an individual’s structure, modes of behavior, interest, attitude, capacities, abilities, and aptitudes”. • TYPES OF PERSONALITY Since the days of Ancient Greece it was confirmed that there are four different types of personality:- 1) Sanguine type: This type of personality characterized by spontaneity, optimism, enthusiasm, high energy, mental flexibility and curiosity. These people often have very express”, “fun”, “active”, “travel” and similar. 2) Phlegmatic type: These people are mainly defined by their social skills, such as their ability to express themselves and read other people face expressions and body language. They are nurturing, sympathetic, agreeable and emotionally expressive. 3) Choleric type: These people are direct, focused, tough, analytical, logical and strategic. They have a great deal of courage and like to complete. 4) Melancholic type: Melancholic tend to be calm, loyal and orderly, just as their personality name sounds. They are cautious and conventional. Their favorite words are “family”, “loyal”, “respect”, “caring”, “values” and “moral”. • DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY Different theories propose different factors that determine an individual personality. The most popular research work done by Freud deals with the identification of Self-concept. However the major determinants of personality are heredity, environment and situation. I. Environment Environment refers to the surroundings in which the individuals are brought up. The environmental factors relating to the formation of personality includes culture, family, society upbringing and experiences. 1) Family factor: Family is one of the significant factors that have an impact on personality development. Families influence the behavior of a person especially in the early stages. The nature of such influence will depend upon the following factors:  Socio-Economic level of the family what he wants to see which means perceptions and interpretations of people depend upon their previous exposure. 2) Motivation: Motivation also has a vital impact on perceptual selectivity where it creates an urge and activates the inner stimuli of individuals. For example:- a) A hungry person will be more sensitive to the smell or sight of food than a non- hungry person; b) When a person walks into the lunch room, he may go to the table where several of his co-workers are sitting, rather than a table which is empty or on which just one person is sitting. 3) Personality: Behavior, values and even age of an individual may also affect the people perceive the world around them. For example, the older senior executives often complain about the inability of the new young manager to take tough concerning terminating and paying attention to details and paper work. The young managers, in turn, complain about the ‘old guards’ resisting change and using paper and rules as ends in themselves. Further, the generation gap witnessed definitely contribute to different perceptions. II. EXTERNAL FACTORS External factor includes the following:- 1) Size: Size always attracts the attention, because it establishes dominance. The size may be the height or weight of an individual, sign board of a shop, or space devoted to an advertisement in the newspaper. The bigger the size of stimulus, the higher is the probability that is perceived. For example:-A full page advertisement will always catch attention as compared to a few lines in the classified section. 2) Intensity: Intensity attracts to increase the selective perception. In other words, it is an activity that involves concentrating a lot of effort or people on one particular task in order to try to achieve a great deal in a short time. Example: Yelling or whispering, very bright colors or very dim colors etc. The term also includes behavioral intensity. For instance, if office order says “Report to the boss immediately,” it will be more intense as compared to “Make it convenient to meet the boss today”. 3) Repetition: Repetition refers to make others to pay attention by stimulating their inner urge through repeated stimulus. In other words, it states that a repeated external stimulus is more attention drawing than a single one. Because of this factor, supervisors make it a point to give the necessary directions again and again to the workers. For example:-Product shown again and again on TV grabs more attention as compared to an advertisement which is shown once a day. 4) Status: High status people can exert greater influence on the perception of the employees than the low status people. For example:-There will always be different reactions to the orders given by the foreman, the supervisor or the production manager. 5) Contrast: An object which contrasts with the surrounding environment is more likely to be noticed than the object which blends in the environment. For example:- In a room if there are twenty men and one woman will be noticed first because of the contrast; EXIT SIGN in cinema halls which have red lettering on a black background are attention drawing. 6) Movement: This principle states that a moving object receives more attention than an object which is standing still. For example:-A moving car among the parked cars catch attention faster. 7) Novelty and Familiarity: This principle states that either a novel or a familiar external situation can serve as an attention getter. This principle helps the managers to change the workers’ jobs from time to time, because it will increase the attention they give to their jobs. For example:-A familiar face on a crowded railway platform will immediately catch attention. 8) Nature: This principle states that whether it is a visual, auditory or pictures of people or animals that will attract more attention than words. For example:-Video attracts more attention than still pictures. • PERCEPTUAL PROCESS 1) Receiving: Receiving is the first stage in the process of perception. It is the initial stage in which a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense organs. 2) Selecting: Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data randomly but selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest or needs. The selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.  External factors − the factors that influence the perception of an individual externally are intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and novelty.  Internal factors − the factors that influence the perception of an individual internally are psychological requirements, learning, background, experience, self-acceptance, and interest. 3) Organizing: Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make sense of the data received, it is important to organize them. Usually data can be organized through grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity. 4) Interpreting: Finally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming an idea about a particular object depending upon the need or interest. Interpretation means that the information we have sensed and organized, is finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be categorized. Usually one’s interpretation may subject to certain errors which was discussed below:-  PERCEPTUAL ERRORS 1) Halo effect The halo effect refers to the tendency of judging people on the basis of a single trait which may be good or bad, favorable or unfavorable. The halo effect is a very common type of error committed by the managers where evaluating the subordinates. Where a manager judge the employees based on his or her first impression. For example:-If a manager considers that an employee has good skills in analyzing a problem, he comes to a conclusion that he can also solve the problem. But solving the problem involves the choosing of the alternatives followed by the decision-making process in which the employee may not be “PROFICIENT”. 2) Selective Perception Selective perception is also known as “Selective attention”. It comprises traits and characters of individual based on sex, age, culture, socio-economic status etc. People selectively perceive objects or things that interest to them most in a particular situation and avoid others. In other words, selective perception is the personal filtering of what we see and hear so as to suit our own needs. For example:-Employee of production department may be concentrating to the skill/work which he is doing and may ignore others. about jobs on their previous experiences. For example:-If everyone who has held a job has been promoted within six months, current job holders are likely to believe that they will also be promoted within six months. 2) Classical Conditioning and Attitudes: One of the basic processes underlying attitude formation can be explained on the basis of learning principles. People develop associations between various objects and the emotional reactions that accompany them. For example:-we may come to hold positive attitude towards a particular perfume because a favorite model wears it. 3) Operant Conditioning and attitude acquisition: Attitudes that are reinforced, either verbally, tend to be maintained. Conversely, a person who states an attitude that elicits ridicule from others may modify or abandon the attitude. 4) Vicarious learning: This refers to formation of attitudes by observing behavior of others and consequences of that behavior. We also learn vicariously through television, films and other media. For example:-a) Movies that glorify violence reinforce positive attitudes regarding aggression. b) If parents says that “blind people are incompetent” then children may adopt such attitudes towards blind people even they never met them ago. 5) Family and Peer groups: A person may learn attitudes through imitation of family members or peers. Attitude towards the opposite sex, religion, tolerance or prejudice, education, occupations, political parties, and almost all other areas where attitudes are capable of expression are the result of our accepting or rejecting the attitudes held by members of our family. Similarly, attitudes are acquired from peer groups in colleges and organizations. 6) Neighborhood: The neighborhood in which we live has certain cultural facilities, religious groupings and ethnic differences. Further, it has people, who are neighbors. These people may be Northerners, Southerners etc. The people belonging to different cultures have different attitudes and behaviors. Some of these we accept and some of these we deny and possibly rebel. 7) Economic status and Occupations: Our economic and occupational positions also contribute to attitudes formation. They determine, in part, our attitudes towards unions and management and our belief that certain laws are “good” or “bad”. Our socio-economic background influences our present and future attitudes. 8) Mass Communication: Attitudes are generally less stable as compared to values. The presentation of news or information is constructed so as to cater to the attitude of the audience. In turn, the audience selects the specific form of mass communication that best reflects its attitudes on various subjects. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE 1) Informational or Cognitive Component The informational component consists of beliefs, values, ideas and other information a person has about the object. For example, a person seeking a job may learn from his own sources and other employees working in the company that in a particular company the promotion chances are very favourable. In reality, it may or may not be correct. Yet the information that person is using is the key to his attitude about that job and about that company. 2) Emotional or Affective Component The informational component sets the stage for the more critical part of an attitude, its affective component. The emotional components involve the person’s feeling or affect-positive, neutral or negative-about an object. For example, “I like this job because the future prospects in this company are very good”. 3) Behavioral Component The behavioural component consists of the tendency of a person to behave in a particular manner towards an object. For example, the concerned individual in the above case may decide to take up the job because of good future prospects. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE • MEANING OF EQ  Emotional intelligence refers to the capability of a person to manage and control his or her emotions and possess the ability to control the emotions of others as well.  Emotional intelligence are the skills which are required to better understand, empathize and negotiate with other people • IMPORTANCE OF EQ AT WORKPLACE 1) Self-awareness: If a person has a healthy sense of self-awareness, he understands his own strengths and weaknesses, as well as how his actions affect others. A person who is self-aware is usually better able to handle and learn from constructive criticism than one who is not. 2) Self-regulation: A person with a high EQ can maturely reveal her emotions and exercise restraint when needed. Instead of squelching her feelings, she expresses them with restraint and control. 3) Motivation: Emotionally intelligent people are self-motivated. They're not motivated simply by money or a title. They are usually resilient and optimistic when they encounter disappointment and driven by an inner ambition. 4) Empathy: A person who has empathy has compassion and an understanding of human nature that allows him to connect with other people on an emotional level. The ability to empathize allows a person to provide great service and respond genuinely to others’ concerns. 5) People skills People who are emotionally intelligent are able to build rapport and trust quickly with others on their teams. They avoid power struggles and backstabbing. They usually enjoy other people and have the respect of others around them. CHAPTER THREE MOTIVATION Motivation Concept and Characteristics Motivation is a term that has been used frequently in many contexts. According to McFarland (1977), “motivation refers to the way in which urges, desires, aspiration and, or needs direct, control or explain the behaviour of human beings.” Motivation is that energizing force that induces or compels and maintains behaviour. The study of motivation is indeed concerned, basically, with why people behave in a particular or certain way. In general terms it is concerned with why people choose a particular cause of action in preference to others, and why they continue with a chosen action, often over a long period, and in the face of difficulties and problems. Mitchell (1982) in his review of motivation theory identifies four common characteristics, which underlie the definition of motivation these are: Motivational Contents Major content theories of motivation, according to Mullins (1996, pp. 489), include: (a) Human Resources model: Theories X and Y (b) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model (c) Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy model (d) Herzberg’s two-factor theory (e) McClelland’s achievement motivation theory. a. Human Resources Model: Theory X and Y In an important study, behavioural scientist Douglas McGregor concluded that managers had radically different beliefs about how best to use the human resources at a firm’s disposal. He classified these believes into sets of assumptions that he labeled “Theory X” and “Theory Y” the basic differences between these two theories are highlighted in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y 1. People are lazy 1. People are energetic 2. People lack ambition 2. People are ambitious and seek responsibility dislike responsibilities 3. People are self-centered 3. People can be selfless 4. People refuse change 4. People want to contribute to Business growth and change 5. People are gullible and 5. People are intelligent Not very bright . Managers who subscribe to theory X tend to believe that people are naturally lazy and uncooperative and must therefore be either punished or rewarded to be made productive. Thus if Theory X view is adopted, the clear implication is that Management must direct, persuade, punish and control activities of people and management must seek to coerce and modify people’s behaviour to fit the needs of the organization. The assumptions of Theory Y are close to Maslow’s “self- actualizing man” and if these views are adopted; it will considerably alter management’s priorities and tasks. Management’s essential task becomes to harness the inherent qualities of people by arranging conditions and methods of operations so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts towards organizational objectives. Cooperation rather than coercion is required although Theory X and Theory Y distinctions have been criticized for been too simplistic and for offering little concrete basis for action. Their value lies primarily in their ability to highlight and classify the behaviour of managers in light of their attitudes toward employees. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of need theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954). Maslow, according to Koontz and Weirich (1993) saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied this kind ceases to be a motivator. Maslow classified these needs into five basic types and suggested that they are arranged in the order or hierarchy of importance shown in Figure 3.2. According to Maslow, needs are hierarchical because lower-level needs must be met before a person will try to satisfy those on a higher level. Self Actualization NeedsEsteem Needs Social Needs Security Needs Physcological Needs Fig. 3.2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1) Physiological needs are basic necessities for physical survival and include food, water, shelter, and sleep. Businesses address these needs by providing both comfortable working environments and salaries sufficient to buy food and shelter. (2) Security needs are the needs to be free of physical danger and the fear of losing a job, property food or shelter. Many employers thus offer pension plans and job security. (3) Social needs include the needs for friendship and companionship as social beings. Making friends at work can help to satisfy social needs, as can the feeling that you belong in a company. (4) Esteem needs: According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self-confidence. Respected job titles and large offices are among the things that businesses can provide to address these needs. (5) Need for self-actualization: Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming – to maximize one’s potential and to achieve something new and meaningful. Challenging job assignments can help satisfy these needs. Maslow’s theory recognizes that because different people have different needs, they are motivated by different things and the arrangement of needs appear to have a realistic basis and has been influential in the study of motivation. Unfortunately, it provides few specific guidelines relating Maslow’s theory to the work situation. Furthermore, post Maslow’s model researchers found that: (i) Hierarchy varies widely, not only for different people but across different cultures. (ii) There is little evidence to support Maslow’s theory that human needs form a hierarchy (iii) There is also doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower level need and the emergence of a higher level need. Research suggests that although two- factor theory works in some professional settings, it is not as effective in clerical and manufacturing settings (Herberg’s research was limited to professional – accountants and engineers only). In addition, one person’s hygiene factors may be another person’s motivation factor. For example, if money represents nothing more than pay for timed worked, it may be a hygiene factor for one person. For another person, however, money may be a motivation factor because it represents recognition and achievement. McClelland Needs Theory of Motivation In the 1960s and 70s David McClelland has examined very closely differences between individual unlike other psychologists who have studied common factors in human motivation. He contributed to the understanding by identifying three types of basic motivating needs. According to Koontz and Weirich (1993), McClelland classified these basic motivating needs as the need for power (n/PWR), need for affiliation (n/AFF), and need for achievement (n/ACH). All three drives or motives (power, affiliation and achievement) are of particular relevance to management, since all must be recognized to make an organization work well. According to McClelland the best managers also have a high desire for power- power in the sense of a concern to influence and shape people and events in the direction they considered right and best. Of interest is the discovery that managers with a high need for achievement and power tend among other things: (i) to be interested in excellence for its own sake (ii) not to work harder when money was the sole reward (iii) to judge situations on the basis of opportunities for excellence rather than prestige. . Perhaps the most interesting of McClelland’s insight was that authoritarian managers (i.e. in the mode of McGregor’s Theory X) tended to have subordinates with low need for achievement. Managers of staff or employees with a high need for achievement tend to manage differently; setting high standards certainly, but also fostering an encouraging and supportive atmosphere and not being directive in telling staff exactly what to do. The question is however often asked, whether all managers should rate high on achievement motivation. People who do rate high tend to advance faster than those who do not. But because so much of managing requires other characteristics besides achievement drive, every company should probably have many managers who, while possessing fairly strong achievement motivation, also have a high need for affiliation. This latter need is important for working with people and for coordinating the efforts of individuals working in groups CHAPTER FOUR WORK GRUPS AND STRUCTURE The Meaning of a Work Group A work group is a set of two or more people who see themselves as a group and are interdependent with one another for a purpose, and communicate and interact with one another on a more or less continuing basis. In many cases (but not always), they work closely together physically. The essential feature of a group is that its members regard themselves as belonging to the group. Although there is no single, accepted definition, most people will readily understand what constitutes a group. A popular definition by Schein (1988), regards the group in psychological terms as any number of people who interact with one another, are psychologically aware of one another and perceive themselves to be a group. A group is more than a collection of individuals; rather, through their interactions, new forms and new properties are created that need to be identified and studied in themselves. The goals may pertain to specific tasks, but it may also mean that the people share some common concerns, values, or ideology. Thus, group members are attracted to each other by some social bonds. Groups are an essential feature of the work pattern of any organization. Members of a group must co-operate in order for work to be carried out, and managers themselves will work within these groups. People in groups influence each other in many ways and groups may develop their own hierarchies and leaders. Group pressures can have a major influence over the behaviour of individual members and their work performance. The activities of the group are associated with the process of leadership. The style of leadership adopted by the manager has an important influence on the behaviour of members of the group. Characteristics of Groups 1. One obvious characteristic of a group is that it is composed of two or more individuals engaged in social interaction. People interact-verbally by mutually influencing each other. People must influence each other in same way to be considered a group. 2. Group must also have some structure i.e. some stable pattern of relationships between members. A group structure is determined, impart, by cohesiveness i.e. – the present member faced to remain in their group. And it is also influenced by the informal rules that operate in groups referred to as norms. Similarly, it is determined by the many roles played by group members. 3. They share common goals groups from for some reasons their members come together to achieve some goals that they unifying interest that helps sustain the group. 4. A goals characteristic of group is that their members perceived themselves as a group. People must reason with each other as similar in some ways, as sharing some common fate. Group members recognized each other and are able to differentiate who is and who is not part of the group. Types of Groups There are numerous types of groups. There are small and large groups, primary and secondary groups, membership and reference groups, in and out groups and formal and informal groups. Each type has different characteristics and different effects on its members. According to Charles H. Cooley, primary groups are those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly, in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideas of the individuals. Often, the terms Small group and Primary group are used interchangeable. Technically, there is a difference. A small group has to meet only criterions the assign precise numbers, but the accepted criterion of small size. Usually, no attempt is made to assign precise numbers, but the accepted criterion is that the group must be small enough for face to face interaction and communication to occur. In addition to being small, a primary group must have a feeling of comradeship. Loyalty and common sense are of values among members. Thus, all primary groups are primary groups. Two examples of primary groups are the family and the peer group. Besides, there are also other classifications of groups that are important to the study of O.B. Two important distinctions are between membership and reference employee the work norms, that is, how to behave at work. In some cases, group “slows down” employees who are “working too hard” and showing up other members; so is the opposite also. If an employee is not working hard enough, the group pressures him or her to “get inline”. This pressure takes the form of talking to the employee, slumming or ignoring him or her, or in extreme cases, physical pressures. Thus, the group orientates and integrates the new employee into the organizational ‘work rules and norms and keeps the employee under control. The supervisor cannot watch every employee all the time, but the group can. (b) Getting the job done: Although theoretically the enterprise is responsible for training the new employee and getting the work done, this task is often accomplished by the work group. Usually the new employee gets some training on how to do the job, but this is rarely enough to get the job done well. The work group really teaches the employee how to cope with the job, how to handle the numerous techniques taught in the training program that are needed to get the job done. Many parts of the job may have to be done by two or more people someone in the work group helps out at such times. This work groups facilitate both training and operations and therefore are beneficial to the organization. (c) Decision making: In addition, groups are used for decision making, negotiating and bargaining thus, group members with diverse backgrounds may bring different perspectives to the decision-making process. Hence some decisions turn out better when several people make them jointly than if one person makes them alone. Theories of Group Formation Some classic theories have been put forward to explain group formation or why people affiliate with one another. 1. Propinquity Theory: The word propinquity simply means that individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or geographical proximity. The theory would predict that in an organization, employees who work in the same area of the plant or office manages with offices close to one another would be more probably form into groups than those who are not physically located together. There is some research evidence to support the propinquity theory and on the surface it has a great deal of merit for explaining group formation. The drawback is that it is not analytical and does not begin some of the complexities of group formation. 2. Interaction Theory: George Hormans based his theory on three elements that are directly related. These are activities, interactions and sentiments. According to this theory, the more activities persons share, the more numerous will be their interactions and the stronger will be their sentiments; the more interactions among persons, the more will be their shared activities and sentiments; and the more sentiments persons have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions. The major element is interaction. It is believed that informal groups form as a consequences of frequent interaction in common activities. The Horman’s theory tends a great deal to the understanding of group formation and process. Participants in an organization interact not just in the physical propinquity sense, but also to solve problems, attain goals, facilitate coordination, reduce tension and achieve a balance tend to form into powerful groups. 3. Balance Theory: This was propounded by Theodore Newcomb and it states that persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar attitudes towards commonly relevant objects and goal. Many management specialists believe groups will be formed and maintained to the degree that members are similar to each other. The more similar they are, the greater the likelihood of group formation. Such similarities may be in the areas of work values, life experiences, education, socioeconomic status, sex, age, religion, ethnic background and the like. 4. Exchange Theory: This is one group formation theory receiving the greatest emphasis in more recent times and it is similar in functioning to the work motivation theory. Exchange theory of groups is based upon reward cost outcome of interaction. A minimum positive level (rewards greater than cost) of an outcome must exist in order for attraction or affiliation to take place. Rewards from interactions gratify (satisfy) needs, while cost incur (attract) anxiety, frustration, embarrassment or fatigue. Propinquity, interaction and common attitudes (similarity) all have roles in exchange theory. Stages of Group Formation There have been many descriptions and studies of the formation and development of groups. A typical analysis of group development includes four stages; initial formation; development of goals, elaboration of structure and development of leaders. Stage 1 Initial formation (Forming stage): A number of people with the abilities necessary to achieve an organizational goal are assembled and assigned a tasked. At this stage of development, it is important that individuals recognize the social need to belong to the group and that they are willing to give and receive friendship and other marks of affiliation for it is in their self-interest to do so. Stage 2 Development of goals (Storming stage): At this stage, the group seeks to establish common task goals. To the extent that these goals are clearly understood, generally agreed on and relevant to the needs of individuals, they are more likely to be achieved. Stage 3 Elaboration of structure (Norming stage): At this stage, coordination becomes paramount. Formal leaders are appointed by management and communication in encouraged in an attempt to re-enforce the structure. Stage 4 Development of leaders (Performing stage): To supplement the formal leadership of the supervisor (boss or company executive), informal leaders develop. These are the people group member turn to when they encounter problems. Leadership studies have identified at least two leaders of work groups: the task leader (usually the formally appointed leader), who pays primary attention to formal goal achievement and the social leaders (informal leader) who provides “social maintenance”. Group Dynamics Just as there is no one definition of the word group, there is also no universal agreement on what is meant by group dynamics. One normative view is that groups dynamic described how a group should be organized and conducted. In democratic leadership, member participation and overall cooperation are stressed. Another close view group dynamics from the perspective of the internal nature of groups, how they form, their structure and processes and how they function and affect individual members, other groups and the organisation as a whole. It is this relationship that holds group members together and the strength of the interaction that a group has, determines group effectiveness. An Effective Work Group is one whose members function as a team and participate fully in group discussions, whose goals are clearly developed, and whose resources are adequate to accomplish its goals. The following factors can influence group effectiveness. (ii) This person or group wishes to make such information know to someone The first thing or step to step is that the sender has the idea or concept (thinking) for the massage: its purpose-Then he or she encodes the massage into the form in which it will be transmitted i.e. words, body movements, writing, even facial expression or observation actions that convey a specific meaning. The massage is transmitted verbally by a medium (in person, on the phone) or in writing, and then informal. Thus the sender has completed the initial phase of communication. The receiver has to be ready for the message so that it can be decoded into thought. A person thinking about an exciting football game may pay insufficient attention to what is being said. Hence the receiver must first perceive the massage; see it or hear it with the senses. Then he or she decodes it and this involves “translation” the message into terms that have meaning for the receiver. Thus comes understanding of course there is important element to consider feedback. This is when the receiver reverses the process and transmits back to the original sender. Such feedback is an essential part of communication in many settings. It is especially valuable in organizations where communication seems to flow downward from supervisors and managers to subordinates. Providing such persons with an opportunity to offer feedback yields several benefits. For example, it can enhance their belief that their views really count, and so increase their commitment to the organization similarly, it permits them to participate in decision making and other organizational processes. Such participation can be beneficial from the view of work elated attitudes. The benefits or feedback are not in any case restricted to receiver. However, such information can also aid senders (e.g. managers) by keeping them informed as to whether their message has been understood, by providing them with evaluation of their ideas and by enhancing their understanding of the perceptions of the subordinates. The Communication Function in an Organization It is no exaggeration to say that the communication function is the means by which organized activity is unified. It may be looked upon as the means by which social inputs are fed into the social system. In its broadest sense, the purpose of communication in an enterprise is to effect change that is, to influence action toward the welfare to the enterprise. Communication is essential for the internal functioning of enterprises because it integrates the managerial functions. Especially, communication is needed to: (i) establish and disseminate goals of an enterprise (ii) organize human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way (iii) help personal relation since communication is the chief means by which organization members work together (iv) also helps to hold the organization together by making it possible for members for influence and to react to one another (v) needed for the manager’s function of planning, organizing, leading and controlling to be accomplished. The process of communication therefore makes it possible for managers to carry out their responsibilities. Barriers and Breakdown in Communication It is probably not surprising that managers frequently cite communication breakdowns as one of their most important problems. Yet, every organization, whether it is comprised of as few as a handful of employees or a complex enterprise such as a government department or multinational enterprise, require efficiency in its communication network in order to survive or to meet their profit, product service quality or other objectives because of inadequate communications, which is manifested in the distortion of messages, friction between individuals and a general lack of morals. Thus, the perspective manager will first look for the cause of communication problems instead of just dealing with the symptoms. Barriers can exist in the sender, in the transmission of the message, in the receiver or the feedback. The principal barriers to communication include the following: 1. Lack of planning: Good communication seldom happens by chance, too often people start talking and writing without first thinking, planning and stating the purpose of the message. 2. Semantic distortion: Another barrier to effective communication can be attributed to semantic distortion, which can be deliberate or accidental. An advertisement saying “we sell for less” is deliberately ambiguous; it releases the question: less what? Words may evoke different responses. 3. Poorly expressed messages: No matter how clear the idea in the mind of the sender, it may still be marked by poorly chosen words, omissions, lack of a coherence poor organization of ideas, awkward sentence structure platitudes, unnecessary jargon and a failure to clarify the implications of the message. This lack of clarity and precision can be very costly. 4. Organization and structure problems: In large-scale enterprises, where it is necessary to have several layers of supervisor in the organizational structure, communications may suffer due to losses in transmission. Where people are separated by great physical distance and status in an organization, oral communication will be difficult to enforce. Massages are then conveyed in written form and here, the senders and receivers may not easily achieve the desired effect. Inefficiency may further result in the form of incorrect translation a loss part of the message and poor retention of information. 5. Status problems: Inefficiency in communications may also result from the differences in rank or status of transmitters and receivers. People or low in status tend to be slow to communicate with superior, thus resulting in a lack of necessary upward flow of information. Also receivers who are at the lower levels in the organizational hierarchy may be inclined to interpret messages in terms of their own positions, back ground and experience and their perceptions of the superior’s intentions. Communication may suffer too because of the listener’s mistrust of the communication. 6. Information overload: One might think that more and unrestricted information flow would help to overcome communication problems. But unrestricted flow may result in too much information. People respond to information overload in various ways. First, they may disregard certain information; people make errors in processing it. Third, people may delay processing information either permanently or with the intention of catching up in the future. Fourthly, a person may filter information. Chances are that attention will be given first to matters that are easy to handle, while more difficult but perhaps critical messages are ignored. Finally, people respond to information overload by simply escaping from the task of communication. In other words, they ignore information or they do not communicate information because of an overload. 7. Poor listening and premature evaluation: There are many talkers but few listeners. Listening demands full attention and self-discipline. It also means avoiding premature evaluation of what the other person has to say. A common tendency is to judge, to approve or disapprove what is being said, rather than trying to understand the speaker’s frame of reference. Yet listening without making hasty judgments can make the whole enterprise more effective and more efficient.