An Introduction to Culture, Ethnocentrism, and Anthropology - Prof. Williams, Study notes of Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

Download An Introduction to Culture, Ethnocentrism, and Anthropology - Prof. Williams and more Study notes Introduction to Cultural Anthropology in PDF only on Docsity! Exam Thursday Feb 16 01/12/2012
Anthropology is derived from Greek: Anthropos (man) and Logos
Anthropology was developed back in the 19th century
4 Major Subfields (4 Field Approach) - most places have added one more  Biological Anthropology o Deals with our bodies, we are primates, we are mammals o Physical evolution – change in life forms over long periods of time. Old perspective: “evolution is a theory, but we might as well call it the law of evolution.” It is a theory for social reasons. Evolution is reality of life on planet Earth. o Primates & their classification. Our closest living mammal species from evolutionary standpoint. Chimpanzees and gorillas and apes are not monkeys; monkeys have tails. Some of the behaviors help us understand the potential behaviors of our ancestors. Every modern living primate is also the end product of 50 million years of evolution. o Differences in us today – physical, biological. Used to be called the study of race. o Issues of human health, human diet  Cultural Anthropology o Deals with out behavior o Culture: behavior that we learn as children (learned behavior that is passed on)  Instinct v. Learned Behavior  Vast majority of human behavior is learned behavior o Ethnography: writing about an ethnic group o Ethnology: the scientific endeavor (attempt) to try and find out what is universal about human behavior - Is there anything that is universal? o Analytical approach for human behavior: divide behavior into…  Looking at relationship of humans to environment  Humans to humans (social interactions)  Humans to Supernatural  No ethnic group that we know of that rejects the supernatural (universal)  Archeology o Allows us to understand early years and behaviors o Cultural Evolution is inevitable (universal) o We can only infer behavior from the material remains that were left behind o Lewis Benford – artifacts in 3 Part Perspective  Technomic Artifacts: Environment  Sociotechnic Artifacts: Social  Ideotechnic Artifacts: Supernatural o Languages are gone – constantly changes o Archeologists are cultural anthropologists of extinct society o Ethnologists go and talk to people, archeologists use artifacts  Linguistics o Language makes us unique – It’s not that we are smarter than other species. We have evolved our breathing apparatus to allow us to communicate complex thoughts. o Breaks into 3 parts  Historical Linguistics: origins of language, relationships between languages – When did we start talking? There is no agreement on this.  Descriptive Linguistics: the way that we understand and talk about language – sounds. Every language uses a subset of the sounds we can make with our mouths and throats but no language uses all of them. Number of sounds in a language can use 14-75+ sounds, but each are equally able to communicate.  Social Linguistics: recognizing that people have subtle variations in how they use their language that reflect social aspects – formality & informality. The words you choose, how you put them together: varies between social relationship between you and someone else.  Applied Anthropology (Added Later) o People take the info of anthropology and apply it to real life  Diffusion of ideas: the spread of new ideas from one place to another o No obvious impact from one culture to another  Miscommunication: passage of culture from one generation to the next, but it doesn’t get passed on as it should
Charles Darwin published late Oct early Nov in London 1859  Cultural evolution modeled on Darwin’s evolutionary theory 1816- 1890 “uni-linear evolutionists” o Quality of data from around the world was poor; they didn’t actually go to the culture, they just wrote letters to get information to two groups of people:  Bureaucratic administrators  Missionaries o Henry Maine 1822-1888 wrote Ancient Law in 1861: he looked at law in victorian England as perfection and hand picked various “intermediate stages” from other cultures in the world o John McLennan 1827-1881 wrote Primitive Marriage in 1861: he looked at marriage in victorian England and then looked around the world for earlier stages o Edward Tyler 1832-1917 wrote Primitive Culture in 1871: he looked at lots of parts of culture (generalist) & attempted to be one of the first anthro text o Louis Henry Morgan (New Yorker): Iroquois Indians in western New York, but he was sucked into the method of these other Englishmen. He wrote Ancient Society in 1877, similar to Tyler’s  All of these men were wealthy and had a lot of property
Father of modern anthropology: Frans Boas  1858-1942  born in Germany  studied physics and geography  studied water and ice  got an opportunity to go to northeastern Canada to pursue study of geography (1883-1884)  became close friends with the eskimo people that helped him survive  his interest changes to the eskimo people themselves  he spent so much time with them that he learned about their culture and realized that they were ethnocentric  he put this together with his own culture and realized the reality of ethnocentrism  he came back in 1888 and wrote “The Central Eskimo” it’s the first real anthropology ethnography ever written  In that he presents the reality of ethnocentrism in every culture and covered much of the eskimo culture (Inuits)  Buy 1888, later the same year, he started working with Indians in northwest and ended up writing over 12,000 pages on the people in that area  He immigrated to the US  In 1889 he was hired by Clarke College in Mass and set up first department of anthropology (stayed for 2-3 years, trained first PhD anthropologist in the world)  Settled in Columbia University (NY) for the rest of his career  But he saw a problem with the things that have been written up to that time  So to all of his students, he said “Thou shalt not talk about cultural evolution.”  The students went out and did wonderful ethnographies and data recording as tribes disappeared
Progress: implies movement to a better way of life  We don’t think about societies progressing; there’s not real evidence to prove that we go from a low to high quality of life
Ron Malinowski (1884-1942):  In 1914 he did ethnographic work in the Trogriand Islands  Wasn’t picked up for 3 years bc of WWI  A hut was built for him in the community and he lived with them for 24/7  The natives began to accept him  He wrote “Argonauts of the Western Pacific”  “Participant Observation” is now the standard field of observation  “Functionalism” way of thinking that culture is integrated. Every part of culture has some function. No part of culture is there for no reason.
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4 Stages
1. Chiefdom: the only individual who had multiple wives, plotting and killing of chief happens regularly, head military leader, head religious leader, considered a God, head judge jury and execiution  Settlement System o Nucleated Settlement System  Chief and his family as well as everyone else behind a single wall which surrounds everyone.  Protection from frequent enemy attacks o Dispersed settlement system  Wall protects the chief and his family (wives and kids) “Chiefly Compound” looks like a small town  Everyone else lives in their own individual farms  The larger the bureaucracy, the less of a need there is for the chief
2. Warfare: no standing military 3. State Level Society  at least 10,000s of people but more commonly 100,000s of people  standing army: full time warriors, only job is to kill other people  craft specializations, jobs are not agriculture  writing (taxes)  market economy: people who are not farmers trade for food  social class

Diffusion: the idea that different idea about ways of living is spread by word of mouth
Every individual in a mindellian population has their own unique set of genetic info
Gene Frequency
Evolution: Any change in the gene frequency of any gene in the gene pool of a mendellian population
Evolution is about population, not individuals
What factors can change gene frequency (evolution)?
Mutation: new genetic information coming into a population bc of the modification of the DNA structure of an individual that can be passed onto the next generation
Darwin’s Natural Selection: depends entirely on the environment. If there is a mutation that causes an animal to have a greater likelihood of growing up and reproducing than that characteristic is more likely to be passed onto another generation.
Gene Flow: some individuals can move from one population to another. They carry their own genetic inventory.

Classification of primates
(do not read chart on 138)
there is a lot of disagreement in the classification
Strepsithini: wet nose
Halplorini: dry nose
Lemuriformes: Lemur (ghosts of the night) live in trees, size of cat, live to 25-30 years, Madagascar, 99 species, They retain a claw (grooming claw) to clean one another. All the others have become nails. Main diet: insects and fruits. Majority are active at night.
Lorisiformes: Loris: Africa India and SE Asia, incredibly slow, live in trees, incredibly thick fur, low metabolism, size of cat, live to 25-30 years, 30 separate species
Tarsiformes: 10 species, tarsiers, small primates, only in milasia, bright red tail with no fur on it, only one that is hairless on its tail, name comes from the tarsil or heel bone, their heel is extended back to the back of the rest of the foot, allows them to jump 6-7 feet straight up, purely nocturnal, big eyes for low light, turn head 180 degrees
Simiformes: includes all monkeys and apes
Plathyrhini: flat nose, new world primates (central and south America 135 or more species of new world monkeys. They separated from old world about 45million years ago (Pangaea), small and agile, have 36 teeth (extra premolar), prehensile tail (can hang by its tail), round nostril in nose
Catarrhini: catar means something running down, nostrils point downwards, have 32 teeth, elongated nostril in nose
Cercopithecoidea: 135 species
Hominoidea: human-like, apes
Cercopithecinae: largest group including baboons, mikacks, inside of cheeks have pouches
Colobinae: langers: can digest cellulose, colobus monkey, central Africa, equator, one species with long 4 inch nose
Hylobatidae: small apes, 17 species, gibbons, SE Asia, arms are longer than bodies, able to swing through trees,
Hominidae: incluse us, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, there are 2 species of chimps, male chimps are incredibly strong, human males and females are much closer in size than other homindaes, 2 species of orangutans in SE asia
Humans, Chimps, Gorillas, Orangutans

Winthrop and Luella had a son Donald
They took a newborn baby female chimp and raised it with Donald for about 9 months
Prior to speech there is no particular difference in behavior

Box and Bananas experiment – late 1940s or 50s
Empty room, tie a bundle of bananas in the center of the room
Too high for a chimp to reach
In one corner is a wooden crate, in another was a stick
Every chimp quickly solved it




i o Our brains had not enlarged at all by that time o There is 0 evidence of us using stone tools o Some people believe we began upright posture 5-6 million years ago. o It is a strange adaptation – we are not nearly as stable on two feet, negative adaptation/mutation. o But standing up you can see farther, see food, see danger. The data now says we began walking upright while we were still living in trees. Right now we don’t understand this. o The pelvis of humans is radically different from chimps, orangutans, and gorillas. Theirs are long an extended, forms some what of an arch. Human pelvis has widened, like a bowl, to hold up intestines or gut. This evolved almost immediately as we began walking upright. Pelvis shows the most change due to posture. o Pregnant women face danger of premature birth bc of standing up right. We are born even more prematurely than the rest of the primates. This extends the time for the mother to care for the baby (24 hour a day care). This is one of the reasons why we are so social. To survive critical 18 months, we are in the care of another person.
*Textbook  Pg. 167 Table 8.1 : lists fossil names of whole series of early human ancestors (pick up from about 6 million years ago)  Pg. 171 Figure 8.1
Read Chapters 8,9,10

Human Fossils
- Our line separated from chimps around 6 or 7 million years ago
- In the last 5 years we discovered fossils for this time (textbook)
- All in Africa
- 5.5 million years ago, found in the last 10 years ago, found in a genus called ardipithicus kadaba. 5.8, 5.5 million years ago. Best candidate for line that leads to us. Leads to other instinct species but not to chimps. We cannot apply our normal test to species to these fossils.
- Artipithikus ramikus dating 4.4 million years ago. Both of these are upright walkers, evidence is not quite positive, but it is strong. About 4.2 million years ago the genus name is changes to australipithicus. This name has been around for 50 years or more.
- Australopithecus Animensus dates 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago, definitey walks
- Australopithecus Apharensis 3.9 to 2.9 million years ago, much more fossil data, legs and pelvis just like ours, walk up right. Litole is a sight in east Africa that has foot prints 3.5 – 3.9 million years ago, volcano ash imprinted an adult and child footprints walking side by side. Then more volcanic ash buried and preserved them. Looks like two peoples foot prints. Zero evidence of tools. Professor Williams thinks they were using sticks, walking sticks esp because we are not too steady on our 2 feet but wood doesn’t preserve.
- The size of the brain has not enlarged over that of chimps  chimps, gorillas: 400, 450 cubic cm – they cant speak but they are aware and can solve problems like humans.
“They should make a remote control out of a walking stick. That would be full circle appropriate.”
- Australopithecus Gahri 2.5 million years ago, less than 10 years old. 2.6 years ago we see earliest stone tools which act as claws and teeth for us. They aided in our survival collectively. First evidence of culture. Still same size brains.
- Soon there after we switch to genus ‘homo’
- Homo Habilus 2.4 – 1.4 million ago, first group with larger brains, 550-750 cubic cm. About 50% bigger than any ape up the that point. Why? What were they doing with this brain power? Stone tools did not get more complex. Did nothing more culturally.
- Modern humans have 1100-2000 cubic cm brains. In our own species we have people with double size brains than others, but does not correlate with intelligence.
- About 2.5 million years ago, there were at least two other lines that went off and became extinct, last one about 1 million years ago. This means our homo habilus ancestors were living in Africa with other apes that were doomed to extinction. One line was plant eaters, huge jaws. We understand no relationships between the lines.
- Homo habilus continued to evolve and about 1.8 or 1.9 million years ago the brain got larger. Homo Erectus, mistakenly thinking they were the first upright. Brain size is 750-1200 cubic cm. It runs into the low range of modern brain size. They lasted until around 300,000 years ago. Change in stone tool technology, more complicated, but still relatively simple. They started leaving Africa 1.5 or 1.7 million years ago. We start finding some of these forms in areas other than Africa. Controlled use of fire didn’t come in until 700,000 or 800,000 years ago. They populated Asia, Europe, Africa. Eventually controlled fire. Longest form of human. Probably had speech and intelligence. Developed band level society: small groups living as single family.
- Eventually 300,000 years ago more changes take place. In portions of Europe and Middle East: Neanderthals. Brains go up to fully modern range. Mean is higher than ours.
- In Africa humans developed 150,000-180,000 years ago with heads like ours. Migrated a second time out of Africa.

Race
Scientifically there is no basis – it is a “bogus” idea
110-120 years ago, long before the understanding of genetics
Classification is at the heart of what culture is
Classifification ourselves as man or female, young or old, tall or short, or by race.
Classification, we believe, is what began racism
But we are one species
Languages have become extinct, are constantly changing, one mother language had evolved into many daughter languages
No such thing as advanced or primitive language
Any thought can be transferred effectively in any language
Mutations took place to add another function besides eating…Increased number of nerve endings to lips tongue and throat
Study of all sounds is called Phonetics
Every language uses a subset of the possible sounds that we can make
English is somewhere in the middle – plenty use more sounds and plenty use less
Acoustic Kinetics: different frequencies and intensities that go into producing sound
English 26 letters but 40 or 42 sounds.
International Phonetic Alphabet:  š means ‘sh’  č means ‘ch’
Phoneme: minimal unit of sound in a given language at a given place in time
Minimal pairs test: find 2 words in a language that alter the meaning but vary only by a single sound  Cat v hat
Tone can be phonemic
Juncture: how long a sound is extended
Allophones: acceptable variations, don’t get in the way of communication  Cat v cayt
Morphemes: minimal unit of meaning, combination of phonemes that actually have meaning. We combine phonemes what we call words of morphemes  Cats = 2 morphemes  Cat’s = possessive not plural
Allophones make allomorphs
Lexicon: a list of words in a language (ideally audio not written)
Writing is not language – new words are made up every day
Oxford English Dictionary: Started in the 1850s in England, first usage in writing of that word, 1st edition published 1947, 2nd in 1986. About 4 and a half feet wide
Syntax: (grammar) rules by which words are put together. Word order is different between languages.
Historical Linguistics goes back to the 1700s  Look to compare languages and see how closely related they are (aka comparative linguistics)  William Jones in 1780 and Englishman noted some similarities studying sanscript in India. He noticed similarities in that and in English. He played with the idea that a huge number of languages are related to one another historically that came from a common ancestor language. “Language Family” o 1st is Indo-European language family. This set forth linguists to find all of the other languages.  There are a number of languages around the world that we cannot find the relationship to any other language. “Language Isolates” o In Europe, the Bask language in northern Spain o Native Americans in Georgia, Yuchi (southern Appalachian) and Timucua  Humans borrow words from one language to the other  Glottochronology: language dating  Morris Swadish 1909-1967: o Asked how we would compare rates of changes in languages. o Core Words: usually 100-200 words are words that don’t make reference to where it is spoken geographically (like human body parts, the moon, sun, stars – common to all human experience) o Compared all of these words in the Indo-European family languages. o Of these core words, approximately 14% of the core words change every 1,000 years. Some people have redone this and say up to as much as 19%. o After 5,000 - 7,000 years, 98% change. 2 languages that came from a common mother language would be so different that we couldn’t detect they were ever related.  We don’t know when humans began using language o Professor Williams thinks around 1 million years of more o In Georgia: Muscogee Language (3 daughter languages here) Cherokee Language (1) o In New York: Iroquois Language (1) o Southeast: Mobilian

Social Linguistics: look at how people use their language differently in different social settings (word choice, delivery, etc…)
Males v females, young v old (baby talk is universal – pitch goes up because ear bones are so tiny that their peak in frequency takes higher pitch so you could better grab their attention) authority v non authority  We weren’t taught this but we learned it through culture  Detect social categories
Cognitive Anthropology: Entire area of anthro that stratles language and culture  1930s Dean of American Indian Languages named Edward Sapir 1884 – 1939 o Student Benjamin Warff o Sapir-Warff hypothesis – the structure of the language people speak has a profound impact on the way they view reality  Ex, eskimo has 12 words for snow bc its so important to their world, plants and animals, kinship, colors  Brent Berlin & Paul Kay in 1969 studied colored terminology  Horizon: things are the same over a large area (rarer). It is very common for the horizon to be unique shared events, for ex: hula hoop 1958 – large area & short period of time.  Absolute Dating Techniques: gives you a date in years ago. (ex, 500 years +/- 50) Term is misleading… aka Chronometric, or time measuring. (Carbon Dating)  Lifeway reconstruction: how people live, what were their houses and lives like  Culture Process: answer universal questions like, are there laws that humans behave at all times and places – what are the general rules of human behavior?
Data of archeology is about where 99% of all humans from all places come from

Relative dating techniques: younger than or older than  We use this because of the error factor  Serration: put things in a series Ex) 3 different present strata (or layers) – couple of miles away, similar situation – Sequence is found by combining all of the data from multiple sites A B C Archeological Cultures: Group of artifacts that stay together for a particular amount of time in a particular area Archeological Site: any place any human did anything at anytime in the past Stratigraphy can get messed up: hillside eroded and upper artifacts are deposited at the bottom (Inverted Stratigraphy) Relatively easy for archeologists to recognize. We can also recognize disturbances: borrowing animals and insects and rodents and human behavior either moving things up or pushing them down. We cant put exact years on this, but we can start for a region using excavation and serration and then obtain more information to get actual estimates (like carbon dating) Every archeological site is a new opportunity to refine the local chronology You can only excavate a site once Archeological sites are a nonrenewable resource (limited) Petri: an American archeologist in Egypt came up with Used in US 1914 around San Fran Bay and then Southwest part of US 1930s for eastern US Essential to build a framework to talk about humans in past anywhere on planet Historical Documents – dating technique Historic Archeology: once documents are available, there are different kinds of questions we can ask. This depends on when historic records begin in the area. Georgia: Spanish explorer 1540s. Dendrochronology: Tree Ring Chronology Pioneered in the Southwest  Need a master chart that shows you how wide the rings are each and every year back as far as you can find the oldest tree (4,777 years this year)
B
C
D  Swedish Increment borer: drill in and get pencil size sliver to get each and every tree ring.  Need preserve pieces of wood that humans have used: posts or lentils on doors on adobe structures – In Southwest it is dry and will not rot away
Carbon 14 Dating: 1949 early 1950 at university of Chicago: Physicist Willard Libby won Nobel Prize in 1960 for accomplishment  In the upper atmosphere there is constant cosmic radiation  When it hits a nitrogen molecule, it causes a change -> radioactive carbon atom  Carbon atoms, in a stable form have 6 protons and 6 neutrons for an atomic weight of 12.  Carbon 14 had 6 protons and 8 neutrons.  This is a radioactive atom meaning it is unstable and will eventually revert back to nitrogen  What Libby did was calculate the half life of the radioactive decay: 5,730 years
Potassium Argon: similar technique in that is uses radioactive Potassium 40 that changes into stable Argon gas. The half life is 1.3 billion years.  This is how we have dated to oldest geological work
Raul Narrol : 1920-1985  Used cultural data all over the world and looked at house size and occupants. Came up with mathematical equation: o 10 by 10 per person (100 square feet): works out to 2 people in a dorm room (no kitchens inside)
A round house gives you more square footage per amount of wood compared to square
We look at ‘activity areas’ in and around houses  Humans do the same activity in the same place
Human burial  Low status – nothing buried with you  Ascribed/Inherited social status v achieved social status
Cheiftons: war is one day  Chiefly compound: chief and family behind wall  Towns: everyone
Archeological survey: find every archeological site we can, thoroughly, to find the settlement pattern of a particular society  People do not want to be living in big compact communities  If warfare is not an issue, people move away
Trade and material objects  Bright, shiny objects  Establish social relationships  Marcel Mauss 1872-1950 wrote an essay on The Gift and he laid out what gift giving is all about. There’s no such thing as free gifts. You establish social relationships and a future social commitment between individuals
Humans and Supernatural:  Throw up – clear inside and out  Circular buildings  Repeating patterns that can be predicted. Ex, eclipses  Its not easy to study religion but we don’t ignore it  Art styles, cave paintings – we record this info and then realize we cant understand what they mean
1836: Denmark – C.J. Thompson worked at the Danish National Museum as a purator of anticuities. Up to 1830s museums existed just for the wealthy buy the wealthy and were not opened to the public. But this one was the first open to the public for educational purposes. In looking at all of the materials there Thompson realized he could group them and put them in a chronological order based on his intuition  stone age  bronze age  iron age
Copper + 10% of tin makes an alloid that is much stronger than copper by itself
Paleolithic:  Lower Paleolithic – oldest  Middle Paleolithic  Upper Paleolithic – materials at the top of stratified sequences
Prior is Mesolithic, all were bad level hunters and gatherers
Once we get into the Neolithic, at roughly

Why did we start agriculture?  Was not wise for humans; set the stage for a lot of problems  Oasis theory: at the end of the ice age when all of the ice was melting, there was drought and plant communities shrank to small islands of small plant communities.  Neolithic Revolution – phrase by Gordon Childe – did a lot of excavations, good field worker: better way of life  Environmental stress at the end of the ice change, rapid change  People never understood that it is true that once agriculture came in, human population began increasing  Up until recently no one questioned why and assumed agriculture permitted this increase because it was better, but this is an accidental correlation. No correlation without causation. Just because two things changed together doesn’t mean one caused the other.  1940s – 1950s first good archeology in the middle east, mainly Iraq, led by Robert Braidwood from university of Chicago – northern Iraq known at Jarmo o Gagros excavations on southern side, 100 meters above tigris and Euphrates. Jarmo was a very early farming village o Agriculture began up in these piedmont regions and then was transferred down into the Tigris and Euphrates valleys  Carl Sauer: gathered carbon dates and published article saying that if you look at the dates, were talking about a several thousand years to get to horticulture and then big agriculture. It was a subtle change.  Plannery: University of Michigan – ecology background o Notions of systems – systems theory is the idea that we can think systematically. They have parts, energy flow, controlling mechanisms, etc… o Systems theory was developed 1940s, 1950s. He took the systems theory and archeological data and put together a story about how we may have started as hunters and gatherers and turn into an agricultural society  Humans need a broad diet  Domesticate wheat, increases in diet’

Since late 1960s mid 1970s we know that not only was it a slow process, but it was not in our best long term interest (it is bad for our health)  Ester Boserup from Denmark 1910-1999 wrote a series of books and papers laying this out in reality.  There’s no way we could live without agriculture because the world is so populated. o Our population continues to increase
Put all of these together and human populations grow  Advantage to have kids  Biological pressure to have kids
We have to come up with, and we did, cures to social problems  You have to organize people socially o Chiefs, chiefdoms, all the way to state level societies
The price we pay is more complicated social rules and the general health of the population.  But in this day and age, we are almost as healthy as we were when we were hunters and gatherers

Archeology of GA- Increasing evidence that we had ppl over 12,000 yrs ago, he belives that there isnt enough, BCZ we normally are all specific styles and shapes over time, NO unique styles. Likewise ther are periods, paleoindian theory 1850BC- 10,000BC the last ice age. The most southern glacier was the Ohio river. North of Ohio river, just rocks, no sign of humans yet. Massive Mammals all over the N and S America. Mamouths, mastodons, horses (that later were extinct), all went extincgt 8-9 million years ago, perfectly correlated with ice age ending and humans coming into play. There have been humans hunting giant animals…spear pointsin dead animals. Preservation of plants, bones is incredible after 12,000 years ago. Elephants kill the most zoo keepers..8000BC-1000BC archaic period= still band lvl society (single family, 10-30) still hunter and gatehrers, white tail deer,big variety of nuts and green plants…they probably worked really easily, bcz food in GA was abundant. In Europe and asia dinosaurs were still alive…6000 BC-3000BC middle, late archaic, 1000BC- something… small lvl of hunters and gatheres…and also same temperature and vegetation as now. There was trade involved. GA had many trade for rocks, and rocks for hunting. Band lvl society (man, wives, children)85% is for wives and children, move base camp from time to time. Middle archaic (6-3K BC) warmer than early archaic, lots of food, no need for special tools, food is a lot. Late archaic- 3000K-present- temp is alittle cooler than middle archaic, population did not jump up, steady increase. More use of resources from the river, trade is used more now. Next period- woodland period= 1000BC-1000AD= simple horticulture in GA. Some things cultivated, sunflower native plant too. For its seeds, another weed plant that has a foot like leaf, kinda podium? Lol black seeds…can make it a meal. Sunflower seeds= good. Big massive trade on shiny rocks....and mofidied into shapes! Birds…too. Hopewell= central Ohio=…Huge language diversity In GA overall. 1000AD- present= missippian period-----societyies become chiefdom..(lived on MOUNDS). Squash IS NATive to GA…in this period corn beans and squash were #1..still hunting thouh… Fernando de soto walked through GA< they ened up spreading small pox too…Desoto was looking for Gold..1650- cheifdoms had fallen apart due to plage and disease. The survivors eneded up meeting together and congregating (in Columbus GA) to talk and try to live out their lives….later the Creek Indians. Cherokee- isolated in NCarolina at first, a chiefdom at first, and had a smaller population compared to most. Not as impacted as others, therefore they had a bigger role. Trail of Tears….

Male Female marriage:  Nothing more than a point in time when a relationship is recognized by society  Every society has different ways to recognize  In ours, courthouse on paper
Rules of marriage  Can’t marry someone from nuclear family (incest)  Exogamy: marriage outside  Endogamy: marriage within (there is a social group within which you should get married) o These rules vary from time to time and place to place o Your class assignment is to all go and get married this weekend. Then get divorced over the summer. And then you’ll have grown socially.  Opportunity to revive relationships between families  Neolobal Post-Marritive Residence Pattern: go and live in a different place o More common to live with husband’s or wife’s family o Matralocal: with wife’s family o Patrilocal: with husband’s family  Logistical problem: ex matrilocal: husband’s family loses a laborer and the other gains a person creating an imbalance which could cause social problems (by creating this social bond)  Frequently the young boy will grow to marry the young girl and it balances out + two marriages which doubles the strength of the social bond  Material gifts (dowry) to compensate for loss of male in family  Sororate System: If a woman dies, then her younger sister automatically becomes the new wife  Levorate: A Man dies and a woman is left a widow, his younger brother becomes the new husband o Lineal Relative – In a line (mother, grandmother, great grandmother) o Colatteral Relative – (cousins, uncles, aunts) o What you call someone depends on whether you are a male or female o Status can also (older v younger brother) o Some societies change the term is someone is dead or living o Could have a double relationship (song: I’m my own grandpa) o Terms are reciprocal (father & son)  2 Major Kinship Systems o Bilateral (ours): you are consanguinally related to both the mother and fathers family (morgans terms v)  Eskimo: Used by 10% of cultures, including ours  Iroquois: A lot more close relatives. Aunts on moms side are called mother and uncles on fathers side are called father and are equally as responsible in raising you. Cousins are called brothers and sisters. Nephews (on brothers side) are son and but sisters kids are nephews and niece. Cross and parallel cousins come in here  Hawaiian (pacific island region): nuclear family is the same. All uncles are called father, all aunts are called mother, all cousins are called brothers and sisters  Parallel: children of parents sibling of same sex  Cross: children of mothers brother and fathers sister. Father mother brother sister are exactly the same o Unilineal: you are only in either the mothers or fathers family but not both (has nothing to do with genetics) there are more unilineal systems in the world.  Crow (crow Indians in great plans Montana): matrilineal system – your are only consanguinal relatives are your mothers family. Dad is an affine (inlaw). Most common system on earth. Moms sister and brother are relatives of yours. Mothers mother is a blood relative, but not your grandfather. Moms sister (called mother) has kids (called brother and sister) who are blood related. In fathers family you call everyone either “father” or “fathers sister” but are still not blood relatives. Only one grandparent is considered related to you. Children on “father” on dads side are parallel cousins and are called brother and sister (on fathers sisters side) even though they’re not blood relatives. On fathers brothers side, cousins are father and fathers sister.  Omaha: Patralineal system. Mother is not a blood relative and no one on her side is a relative. Dads brother is a relative and so are his children, dads sister is a relative but her children aren’t. Dads dad is your one grandparent that is a blood relative. Mirror image of crow with exception of brothers mothers kids. If male, dads moms kids are nephew and neice, if female, dads brothers son and daughter  Sudanese: patrilineal system. Every single individual has their own term that uniquely identifies them. Has the maximum number of classifications that push people away socially. Individuality v group identity. (Hawaiian has most group identity)  Probably because of stress to survive and need or lack of need for large group. Any of these people that we think of as cousins and are called brother and sister, it is totally off limits to marry them (you can never marry a brother or sister). But there are marriage alliances between large families. The textbook uses different terminology, use Prof Williams’  Crow kinship system, uni-lineal, only in mothers family. Creates problem that male children in the family, their father is not a relative. It is the brother of your mother’s (uncle) responsibility to raise the boy. In the Omaha system, it does not work oppositely. In the crow system, he is called the avunculate. This comes in during agricultural times (simple horticulture) more important of the female role (plant gathering, processing, and cooking). Domestication of animals comes in after agriculture does.  The Omaha is more common in hunting and gathering societies. They are patrilineal and patralocal (live by husbands home). As the male child needs to learn to hunt, it is harder for him to learn if he has to move off to an entirely new place. The boy is already familiar with the land. It is less difficult to adapt with gathering. Consequently we think that the patrilineal unilineal system is perhaps one of the oldest kinship systems of them all. Religion: Important to all humans, societies, and cultures. In anthropology we do not use the word religion for concept of the belief system Everyone is ethnocentric – wars on differences of religious opinion We have a problem, we have no inside knowledge as to whether one is correct or incorrect but we understand that human behavior in every culture is completely conditioned about their religious beliefs. What are their believes and how do they impact their behavior? Trying to compare cultures around the world, there is so much variation that it boils down to one common thing: the belief in the existence of spirits, non porporial entities. Beyond that, nothing is universal. The role of those spirits vary tremendously from culture to culture. Religion plays a role in social stability. If anthro could somehow know the truth, and said there were no spirits out there, we would hide that information because belief in spirits provides a great level in social stability. We convinced ourselves that we need these beliefs for a stable society. How and where did religion begin? We don’t know. It is universal in every culture. But some people guessed…  Spirits really exist. But that is where we have to stop.