An Overview of Cognitive Approach in Language Learning: Cognitive Theory in Language Learning, Study notes of Cognitive Development

Download An Overview of Cognitive Approach in Language Learning: Cognitive Theory in Language Learning and more Study notes Cognitive Development in PDF only on Docsity! An Overview of Cognitive Approach in Language Learning Cognitive Theory in Language Learning Cognitive theory in language learning is in accordance with two modern theories : cognitive linguistics theory and cognitive psychology theory. Cognitive linguistics theory describes how language interacts with cognition, how language forms our thoughts and the evolution of language parallel with the change in the common mindset across time. (Robinson& Peter, 2008) It was first proposed by Gearge Lakoff in 1987 in “Women, Fire, and Dangerous Thing.”Later, other scholars began developing their own approach to language description and linguistic theory. ( Wallace Chafe, 1987; Charles Fillmore 2006) The most influential view shared by all the linguists is meaning should be a primary focus of study. Cognitive psychology theory is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. It received great popularity in the mid-1950s, shifting from the study of conditioned behavior to the understanding of human information processing. Norbert Wiener (1984) introduced terms such as input and output. Newell and Simon( 1972) developed the General Problem Solver. Aikinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed multistore model which shows the process of memory. Cognitive psychology is the core theory of cognitive approach. Cognitive Method in Language Learning Method refers to more specific way of learning than approach. From the view of cognitive method, learning strategy (students) and teaching method ( teacher) should be centered around student’ mental process rather than the external behavior and it is teachers’ role in guiding individual to focus on their internal learning process and learning style should be noted. Cognitive strategies include repetition, organizing new language, summarizing meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorization, all of these strategies involve delivering manipulation of language to improve learning. Teaching method encompasses content enhancement, content evaluation, determination of necessary approaches and routines and instructional supports. (Bulgren & Scalon,1997) Content-based method and student-led seminar are two favored ways in cognitive language learning class. Cognitive Technique in Language Learning Cognitive Activities Technique reflects activities or tools used by teachers. In cognitive language learning, activities used should focus on the effects in developing students’ thinking ability and problem-solving ability. The goal is to get them thinking and applying problem-solving strategies without the use of preparation or steps that lead to an answer. Cognitive activities includes making mind maps, visualization, association, mnemonics, using clues in reading comprehension, underlining key words, scanning, self testing and monitoring and etc. Cognitive Tools : Learning with Technology Cognitive tools mean learning with technology. Jonassen (1994) stated that technologies as tools can provide learners with meaningful thinking, which correlates closely with cognitive view. Lajoie (1993, p.261）and Shim and Lee (2006) concluded that technology can benefit learners by supporting cognitive processes, sharing the cognitive load, allowing the learners to engage in cognitive activities that would be out of their reach and allowing learners to generate and test hypotheses in the context of problem solving. There are five classes of cognitive tools suggested by Jonassen and Carr (2000) : semantic organization tools, dynamic modeling tools, visualization tools, knowledge construction tools and socially shared cognitive tools. The five tools cover comprehensible aspects of language learning including semantics, grammar,social linguistics and etc, providing instructions for teachers’ chose of technology tools in developing students’ cognitive ability. Common cognitive tools are concept maps, knowledge forum, blogs and just to name a few. The Strength of Cognitive Approach in Language Learning Unlike the behavioral approach, cognitive approach aims to discover what might be the better way for the acquisition of language in our mind. It highlights how mental process greatly influences behavior and the disparity of learning effects. responses because it is a process in determining on how person thinks, understands, and knows. PRINCIPLES OF COGNITIVISM Cognitivism involves the study of mental processes such as sensation, perception, attention, encoding, and memory that behaviorists were reluctant to study because cognition occurs inside the” black box” of the brain (Jordan, Carlite & Stack, 2008:36). In this case, sensation perception, attention, encoding, and memory are the principle of cognitivism. The followings are the explanation of them. The first principle is sensation. It shows how the stimuli derived from external stimuli is registered in sensory before it being sent to the following process. The second principle is perception which shows as the process to interpret and make sense something which can be seen through our sense. It consists of pattern recognition, object recognition, bottom up or top down processing, and conscious perception. The third principle is attention which stresses in the concentrating to one thing, that the most importance than the others. It is important to determine the conscious awareness. The fourth principle is encoding as the principle of cognitive theory focuses on the importance of encoding information, after something being perceived and attended to stimuli. The way to encode the information can be done through organizing and then form it in the form of schema. In this case, to encode the information in the form of experience can be conducted through two ways. They are bottom up and top down (Jordan, Carlite, & Stack 2008:43). Bottom up is the way to encode experience by transferring the information that is gained through the external world. It is mediated through attention and perception. While top down is another way to encode experience. It is in the form of action prior knowledge in order to help in interpreting the bottom up. The fifth principle is memory. Memory is the ability to keep and remind the information in our mind. It consists of short term memory, long term memory, and sensory. Short term memory consists of limited amount of data and short duration. It is also known as the working memory because it consists of some functions. They are rehearsal (repetition), coding, decision making, and retrieval. The information that can be maintained approximately 5-9 bits. According to Vinci (2000: 18) long term memory can hold a huge amount of information-facts , data, and rules for how to use and process them and the information can be maintained for long period. It means that long term memory consists of very large amount of data and very long duration. The way to keep the information can be maintained in this type of memory is by using cues. THREE IMPORTANT COGNITIVE THEORIES Cognitive is a learning theory that emphasized in the process which happens inside the learners. In this case, there are three important types of cognitive theories. They are Piaget’s cognitive development theory, Vygotsky’s socio cultural cognitive theory and the information processing approach. Piaget’s Cognitive Development (1896-1980) Piaget is the famous psychologist from Swiss who describes cognitive theory in the cognitive developmental theory. According to Hebb(2003: 3) Piaget’s theory states the children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through stages of cognitive development. It means that Piaget described cognitivism in the stage development of children when they are ready to construct the meaning of things through their own understanding which starts from the simple to complex thing. Knowledge and thinking skills provide the substance and tools for cognitive problem solving (Bandura, 1989:9). There are two processes underlie in cognitive construction. They are organization and adaptation. Organization is important in order the children construct the meaning of thing which make sense to them by organizing our experience. For example we specify the less and important ideas then we connect them. While adaptation is useful when we add the new information in our thinking system because there is important additional information. In this case, adaptation is differentiated into two ways. They are assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when individuals adjust to new information (Hebb, 2003:3). For example: Newborns reflexively such everything that touches their lips (assimilation) , but after several months of experience, they construct their understanding of the world differently . They don’t suck fuzzy blanket (accommodation). Piaget developed the cognitive development because he believed that the children pass the four stages of cognitive development. The first stage is sensor motor (from birth to about two years of age). In this stage an infant tries to construct the meaning of something that he or she is seeing and hearing. This stage emphasizes in the infant’s motoric action. All the end of the stage, that is two years old babies will have complex sensor motor than before because they try to desire the meaning of thing in simple symbols. The second stage is preoperational stage (two to seven years of age). In this stage, the children try to represent the world through word, images, and drawing. The third stage is concrete operational stage (seven to eleven years of age). In this stage, the children can use the intuitive thought. It means that they try to learn from concrete to abstract thing. For instance, concrete operational thinkers can’t imagine the step to complete algebra equation which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development. The fourth stage is operational stage (eleven to fifteen years of age) In this stage, the individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical terms. For instance formal operational thinkers are more detail in solving the problems. THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF COGNITIVE THEORIES According to Suharno (2010:60) the cognitive view takes the learner to be an active processor of information. It means that the cognitive theory tries to create the people to be active to think. The implication of cognitive theories in educational field is try to produce the students to find the problem solving. do discovery learning, cognitive strategies, and project based learning. Problem Based Learning The application of the learning is try the students to find the solution of the problem. For example the student conducts a research. It means that he or she must find the solution to solve the problems of his or her research that consists of identifies the problem, collects and analyzes the data, draws the conclusion. The strength of problem based learning are it focuses on the meaningfulness not the facts, it can improve the students’ initiative, it can improve the students’ learning achievement etc. Discovery Learning Discovery learning is one of the applications of cognitivism . According to O’Donnell(1997) “Discovery Learning is an instructional method in which the students are free to work in learning environment with little or no guidance”. This assumption from O’Donnell is also supported by Ryan & Muray (2009) who assume that discovery learning is problem based learning with minimal guidance”. It means that through discovery learning the teacher gives opportunity to students  teacher explains new vocab through pictures, realia or miming  Students are encouraged to speak in the target language in "real" contexts (eg at the doctor's or going shopping) or about "real" topics (eg sport or money).  Students are not taught grammar explicitly — they encounter examples and are asked to deduce the rule.  Vocabulary is practised by using new words in context. Direct Method BACKGROUND The direct method, also known as the conversational method or natural method, was developed by Maximilian Berlitz (1852- 1921) towards at the end of the 19th century as a reaction to the dissatisfaction with the grammar Translation Method. This method it is called like that because the target language has to be direct connected with the meaning without translation into the native language. Furthermore, direct teaching is a systematic instructional method that requires the teacher to have a command of the subject matter. Hence, this method is based on behaviorist learning principles; moreover, it helps to get students attention. This method continues to provoke interest and enthusiasm today, but it is not an easy methodology to use in a classroom situation. For that reason, this method that almost disappeared as a distinct method during the 1930’s has become a tool for teachers to teach a foreign language. TEACHER'S AND LEARNER'S ROLE In this method, the role of the teacher is to direct the class activities, encourage students to participate in class by asking them questions constantly, and corrects their mistakes immediately. Something really important in this role is that students and teachers are partners in the learning process. In the other hand, the student role is less passive than in the grammar translation method. Moreover, there is student self- correction; they have to speak a lot that means that their communicative skills are emphasized. CHARACTERISTICS OF THEMETHOD (APPROACH) In this method the classroom instruction are conductive exclusively in the target language. So teachers should not use the mother tongue to teach them a new foreign language. Moreover, learners acquire the vocabulary by practicing every day. Something quite important is that the vocabulary is touch in the initial phase, and the grammar, reading and writing are introduced in the intermediate phase. The communication skills are built in a carefully way. Also in this method the grammar is taught inductively. Furthermore speech and listening skills are developing in this method. Briefly, students should speak the 80% of the class. TECHNIQUES THATWOULD BE USE FROM THIS METHOD Some technics that can be used are reading aloud. Students can read a paragraph aloud and the teacher is going to correct the mistakes on the spot. And another one can be dictation. In this case teachers dictate a dialog or a paragraph to their students, and they have to write it down. At the end the teacher check them. At the end teacher can check it. ie DIRECT METHOD 168 Teaching of English (Principles and Practices) 18.1.3 Characteristics of the Structural Approach The essential features of the Structural Approach are as follows. Contextual presentation: Many social situations are createuw | the classroom so that the student becomes involved and quite unconsciously practices them. Structural items and words live in’ 1 contexts and learning experiences must be life-like and they) must be transferable to life. Word order: This is of primary importance in learning the: English language. It is the order of words in a pattern that! » makes true meaning clear. There is a fixed word order for every, sentence and this order signifies a particular meaning. and J Approaches and Methods of Teaching English 169 Four stages in the teaching of structure: A given mode of language structure is thus taught in four Stages; focusing the syntactic pattern, shaping psychomotor Tesponses, developing communicative skill and relating the pattern to previously taught material. Listening Comprehension is acquired by perceiving the construction of the sentence. The ability to hear correctly and understand perfectly needs the mastery of the structures of the language. Oral work makes for interesting and lively lessons and produces quicker thought and greater readiness of speech. Opportunities for the development of Reading Skill are also provided while learning structures, change in the word order changes the meaning of the sentence | According to Frisby “A sentence is a sequence of words expressing a unit of thought and collected together into a, pattern”. The three main varieties of these patterns are statement pattern, question pattern and request or commani pattern. a 18.1.4 Procedure The steps involved in the Structural Approach are — _ Revision of the previous structure Presentation of the new structure The use of structural words or functional words: When thesel= ae words stand by themselves, they have little or no meaning bu they are very useful in forming sentences of different kinds These words are the key to all English constructions, All the Prepositions, pronouns, relatives and conjunctions are structur: Creating a situation to teach the new structure Individual and group drill Reading from substitution drills Teaching vocabulary in Presenting the structure in actual situations words. There are also structural adjectives such as this, that. these, those, any etc. and structural adverbs such as even, also, even again etc. Inflections: These inflections are changes or differences in th form of words to show the function they are doing in sentence. The variations are intended to express case, numbe! gender, tense and so on. | — _ Teacher gives written Practice in the class — Assignment 18.1.5 Merits of the Structural Approach Controlled practice of structures leads to productive use and facilitates accuracy. Carefully selected and graded language items are taught on the basis of frequency, usefulness and being teachable. Speech is emphasized. Habit formation is given importance, Language is taught in meaningful situations. Readers are written according to this approach. The Structural Approach has brought a system in the teaching of English. It has systematized the work of a teacher and learner, Spontaneous a)-In Verbs — I play, he plays, I am playing, I played. 'b) In Nouns — One boy, two boys, that boy’s cap, one man, tw men, men’s food. c) In Adjectives — great, greater, greatest, good, better, best Reinforcement through practice: Each structure is drilled ani firmly established. Practice fixes the material presented t achieve accurate and fluent command of the language.  37, Bil 170 Teaching of English (Principles and Practices) 18.1.6 Demerits of the Structural Approach = This approach overemphasizes on oral work. So it has neglected reading and writing. m Pupil’s knowledge of the mother tongue is not exploited. They find it difficult to understand meanings in English. a Structural Approach overemphasizes drill work which often degenerates into mechanical activity. Techniques requiring more active use of the pupil’s mental powers should also be used. Pe a The Structural Approach is not suitable to higher classes. It is applicable to the lower classes only. The higher classes need more creative use of the language. a Teaching of the Structural Approach needs competent teachers but now teachers trained on these lines are not available. = It becomes difficult to complete the syllabus in time, if the structural syllabus is strictly followed. = This is an approach which may not be helpful in the teaching of Poetry and other forms of literature. However, the Structural Approach stresses on the gradual growth of language learning. The approach is definitely an improvement on the traditional methods of teaching English in India. It has brought a system, variety, life and activity in the teaching of English. To sum up, the Structural Approach makes the young learners keen and active. 18.2 Structures Structures are the devices by which complete meanings are conveyed. According to Prof. Hornby, “Structures are the devices that we use to make signals, to convey meaning and to indicate relationship”. Ia English, the arrangement of the words in the sentence is more important than the grammatical form of the word. Using the same words in two separate sentences in a different order, yields different meaning. The different meaning is because of the different arrangement of words. 18.2.1 Types of Structures The different patterns of words are called structures. The types of structures are as follows: Approaches and Methods of Teaching English im la _—_‘ The patterns in which words combine to form groups — Nominal —- Verbal — Adjectival — Adverbial im ~~‘ The changes in the forms of certain words According to position and context Number — toy — toys; thief — thieves Tense — play —plays, played, playing Possessive case — mine, yours, hers, theirs, etc. Degree — great, greater, greatest = — Structural words which carry little or no lexical meaning but which combine with other words and help to signal the relationship between them. — Articles — Conjunctions — Pronouns -— Relatives Structural adjectives — this, that, these, those, any etc. Structural adverbs — even, also, ever, again etc. = _ Phrase patterns — on the table, with a knife a Idioms are groups of words that are taught as a whole — in the pink of health, at the eleventh hour 18.2.2 Selection and Gradation of Structures In any language course, one of the most important decisions to be taken relates to the amount of language material (words and tructures) to be included in the course. It is clearly impossible to include the whole of English in a course of limited duration. It is therefore essential to limit the language material to a manageable number of structures and words. In learning a foreign language in the classroom, all the features f the language cannot be practiced. Therefore, in a foreign language course, pupils’ attention must be drawn to the most important features lof the language for intensive practice. The syllabus compiler has to decide about which of the structural items are worth teaching (selection) and in ‘what order they should be taught so as to ensure maximum speed and efficiency in the learning process (grading). 18.2.2.1Principles of Selection of Structures — Prepositions | The selection of structures is done on both linguistic and practical considerations and the following principles are kept in view while selecting a particular structural item in a course.  Design Objectives Au Natural Approach “is for beginners and is designed to help th ecome intermediates.” It has the expectation that students ee es adequately in the target situation, They will under- ee soe S of the target language (perhaps with requests for clarificas Be ani a el able to convey (in a non-insulting manner) their requests fale ae i fe know ase word in a particular semantic domain, ary that the syntax and vocabulary be flawle: i y ss — but their pre duction does need to be understood, They should be able to make the neil ing clear but not necessaril c i ee ‘Ae ly be accurate in all details of grammar. (Krashen’ eae the Natural Approach is offered as a general set of pri ples applicable to a wide variety of situations, as in Communicati Language Teaching, specific objectives depend on learner needs and skill (reading, writing, listening, or speaking) and level being taught. Krashen and Terrell believe that it is important to communicate Ae te os ag of Natural Approach Spanish, you will be able to: “get ; panishs you will be able to communicate with a monolingaal tive speaker of Spanish without difficulty: read mi i in Spania kde: a ! icaltys d most ordinary texts in Spanis bier ane of a dictionary; know enough Spanish to continue to improve After 100-150 hours of Natural A Pass for a native speaker, use Spanis native speakers when they talk to ea eavesdrop successfully); ticipate easily in a conve! familiar topics. (Krashen proach Spanish you will zot be able t +h as easily as you use English, understan ch other (you will probably not be able use eee the telephone with great comfort: Di rsation with sevegal other native speak _ and Terrell 1983: 74) Wee a The syllabus Krashen and Terrell (1983) approach course organization from points of view. First, they list some typical goals for language courses ai suggest which of these’goals are the ones at which the Natural Avneoud aims. They list such”goals under four areas: i 1. Basic personal communication skills; oral ( ments in public places) 2. Basic personal communication skills: ing personal letters) ¢.g., listening to announce. written (e.g., reading and writ: 184 The Natural Approa 3, Academic learning, skills: oral (e.g., listening to a lecture) 4, Academic learning, skills: written (e.g., taking notes in class) Of these, they note that the Natural Approach is primarily “designed to develop basic communication skills — both oral and written” (1983: 67). They then observe that communication goals “may be expressed in terms of situations, functions and topics” and proceed to order four pages of topics and situations “which are likely to be most useful to beginning students” (1983: 67). The functions are not specified or suggested but are felt to derive naturally from the topics and situations. This approach to syllabus design would appear to derive to some extent from threshold level specifications (see Chapter 14). The second point of view holds that “the purpose of a language course will vary according to the needs of the students and their particular interests” (Krashen and Terrell (1983: 65): The goals of a Natural Approach class are based on an assessment of student needs. We determine the situations in which they will use the target language and the sorts of topics they will have to communicate information about. In setting communication goals, we do not expect the students at the end of a particular course to have acquired a certain group of structures or forms. In- stead we expect them to deal with a particular set of topics in a given situa- tion. We do not organize the activities of the class about a grammatical syllabus. (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 71) From this point of view, it is difficult to specify communicative goals that necessarily fit the needs of all students. Thus, any list of topics and situations must be understood as syllabus suggestions rather than as specifications. As well as fitting the needs and interests of students, content selection should aim to create a low affective filter by being interesting and foster- ing a friendly, relaxed atmosphere, should provide a wide exposure to vocabulary that may be useful to basic personal communication, and should resist any focus on grammatical structures, since if input is pro- vided “over a wider variety of topics while pursuing communicative goals, the necessary grammatical structures are automatically provided in the input” (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 71). Types of learning and teaching activities From the beginning of a class taught according to the Natural Approach, emphasis is on presenting comprehensible input in the target language. Teacher talk focuses on objects in the classroom and on the content of pictures, as with the Direct Method. To minimize stress, learners are not required to say anything until they feel ready, but they are expected to respond to teacher commands and questions in other ways. 185  i aterials n, J. M., and A, Palmer, 1988, pes pRB ene rown, J. M.. 4 eee wa g hen’s Input Hypoth BOWE Geen ‘ ts eae Hereien Languages and Their Teaching. New oO Nppleron-Century-Crotts Pilis, R. 1997. Second Langua; 3, K. 1984, Krashen’s monitor and 6, Combine use of pictures with TPR, “ with her dog and give it to the wom: 7. Combine observations about the pictures with command: “If there is a woman in your picture, stand your picture, touch your right should Using several pictures, ask students to point to the picture being deseri Picture 1. “There are several people in this picture. One appears to be a ther, the other a daughter. What are they doing? Cooking. They are coal ing a hamburger.” Picture 2. “There are two men in this picture. They a young. They are boxing.” Picture 3. . . Jim, find the picture of the little an with the pink blouse.” and conditioy up. If there is something bhi : Oxford University Press. e f sition. Oxford: Oxford n oN " wd Occam’s razor. Applied Linguistics 5(2): 1995. Studies in ’ and M. van Naerssen (eds.). Neer cand Spach Linguistics: Fesschrii th Hone of TYacy ranguage Le ash Lin ; McGraw-Hill. : cas K fe ae Pas ‘Acquisition and Second Language Learning. ashen, S. 1981. : ean Ge 1585 Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition. rashen, : kK re ite The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London: rashen. S. i (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 75! In all these activities, the instructor maintains a constant flow of “g prehensible input,” using key vocabulary items, appropriate gestu context, repetition, and paraphrase to ensure the comprehensibility of input. Longman, a Krashen, S. 1989. We acquire vocabul evidence for the input hypothesis. 4. Krashien’S. 1992. Fundamentals of Language ashen, S. ees ‘The case for free voluntary reading. Canadian Modern Lan: Krashen, S. hy wuage Review SOG): 72-82. s ee Pe ee eae a caine: Syste 241: 97-100, Roctew S. 1997, ‘The comprehension. hypothesis: Rece rashen, S. 1997. ensin Teachers’ Renee. ; k ae Che eal of English as a foreign language. Eng ashen, 8. 1996, se ine ar eel 198 The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition Krashen, S., and T. 198. i Fess rhe Maniot Madel; Some methodological consider McLaughlin, B. 1978. The Monitor Model: S san tee ees. Necessity and suficiency in langage DET tag Tnterninicnal Review of Applied Lape OO eee cies, Rivers, W, 1981, Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. 2nd ed. ivers, W. 1981. pce i : Oxford Sk a euiaas coeaed Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxfe skehan, P. e University Press stevick, E. W. 1976. Memory, Mes vests en TE ee ees dade ee ceauanconsand Terrell, T. D. 1977. A natural approach to hs Tee anne Mier Lanbuaee [eat 325-336, Terrell, T. D. 1981. The natural approach in biling Office of Bilingual Education. ie Terrell, T. D. 1982. The natural approach to Modern Language Journal 66: 121-132. ing: Additional ary and spelling by reading: Additional Modern Language Journal. 73(4): 440: Education. Beverley Hills, Calif.: Conclusion The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teachi methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquil both first and second languages in nonformal settings. Such metho. reject the formal (grammatical) organization of language asa prerequisit to teaching. They hold with Newmark and Reibel that “an adult effectively be taught by grammatically unordered materials” and th such an approach is, indeed, “the only learning ‘process which we kno’ for certain will produce mastery of the language at a native level” (196! 153). In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaning ful communication as well as the provision of the right kinds of coi prehensible input provide the necessary and sufficient conditions for su cessful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. This has le to a new rationale for the integration and adaptation of techniques dra from a wide variety of existing sources, Like Communicative Langua; Teaching, the Natural Approach is hence evolutionary rather than revo lutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lie techniques it employs but in their use in prehensible and meaningful practice acti grammatically perfect utterances and sentences. lish Teachers’ ye ical Per- g Method: Some Psychological tea a Mass.: Newbury House. cation. MS. California language teaching: An update. Bibliography and further reading Baltra, A. 1992. On breaking with tradition: The significance of Terrell’s Natural Approach. Canadian Modern Language Review 49(3): 565-593, Berne, J. 1990. A comparison of teaching for proficiency with the natural ap- Proach: Procedure, design and approach, Hispania 73(4): 147-193, 190 191 178 Teaching of English (Principles and Practices) This approach is able to bring about practical mastery of speech. ¢ Instant corrections are possible. This implies that the learner is to be supplied with the correct forms. ¢ — The Oral Approach is also called as the Aural — Oral Approach because listening and speaking are inseparable. ¢ Only the Oral Approach can provide situations to produce Spontaneous responses. e@ — This approach can be profitably exploited for teaching reading and writing through various question-answer techniques. Oral Approach helps slow learners to have sufficient self- confidence and to use the language without inhibition. 18.4.3 Disadvantages There are a few disadyantages in the use of this approach. = The Oral Approach leads to the problem of pronunciation. There are a few sounds and sound sequences which are not found in the Indian languages and hence pose problems in pronunciation. = Lack of competent teachers. Unfortunately some teachers lack resourcefulness and cannot speak fluently. = This is a tinse-consuming and laborious process of oral practice. = Adult learners are often shy to speak English. 18.5 The Communicative Approach The broad term ‘Communicative Approach’ refers to the development of language learning or teaching from form-based to a meaning-based approach and the shift ‘from teacher-centred to learner-centred classes. This approach has for its goal not just communication but communicative competence which is the ability, not only to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use them. The Communicative Approach has resulted in the inclusion of vocabulary and activities -for expressing one’s feelings and language learning, for sharing one’s values and viewpoints with others and for developing a better understanding of their feelings and needs. In the opinion of Strevens (1985), there are six types of communicative functions with language, namely, judgement and evaluation, persuasion, argument, rational enquiry and exposition, personal emotion and emotional relations with the persons spoken to. Approaches and Metbods of Teaching English 179 The Communicative Approach was born during the early years of the 1970’s simultaneously in Europe and North America. This approach is a move in the direction of meaning as also in that of a language classroom which allowed the learner to have initiative and choice. 18.5.1 What is Communicative Competence? Communicative competence is defined as “the ability to cope with the interactive structuring of discourse” Widdowson, 1985. It refers to “the knowledge both of rules of grammar, vocabulary and semantics and rules of speaking” (Hymes, 1972). It represents what a speaker needs to know to communicate effectively in culturally significant setting. It is an ability to skillfully employ the Tesources and tules of language use. Linguistic competence is part Ee nau can competence and the development of communicative skills involves the acquisition and command over skills than content. 18.5.2 Principles of the Communicative Approach The Principles of the Communicative Approach to teaching and learning of English are as follows: e Communication is meaning based, conventional, appropriate, interactional and structural. e The approach is a move towards the ‘process’, ‘task’ and ‘discovery’ orientations of materials. e It believes in the appropriateness of use and a shift of emphasis from accuracy to fluency. e Language is conventional and those utterances: that are conventionally used need to be learned for communication. The conventional aspects of language usage such as conversational openers, routine formulae, ceremonial formulae, memorized clauses etc. need to be learned. e Communication includes the knowledge of communicative strategies. The style should vary with respect to the situation, the task, the role of the participants etc. e Communication is aimed mainly at the speaker’s and listener’s need to feel valued and approved. Conversation is a form ofa social encounter — a way of communicating meaning or ideas.  180 Teaching of English (Principles and Practices) 18.5.3 Characteristics of the Communicative Approach The Communicative Approach is marked by the following characteristics. This approach involves a task structure and a process structure. In the former the speaker creates discourse that is coherent. Different elements of discourse include conversation, discussion debate, description, narration and instruction. Process structure comprises the use of word indicators to show how our ideas are related such as ‘In any case’, ‘To begin with’ etc. The prime focus is on the learner. The teacher is just a facilitator who provides material and helps the pupils to become autonomous learners. The Communicative Approach relies on authentic materials. The tasks set are purposeful and meaningful. This, in turn, means that a communicative task can be judged immediately for its ‘success’ by the learner. Communicative Approach emphasizes on the functions of a language rather than the rules. This approach is fluency-based rather than accuracy-based. The Communicative Approach is interactive in nature. The learner interacts with the teacher and peers in the learning situation and his’ proficiency gradually increases through such interactions. 18.5.4 Procedure The teacher presents a brief dialogue — discusses the function, Situation setting, roles, topic, formality or informality of the language used in the dialogue. The teacher allows oral practice or each utterance of the dialogue in chorus or in groups or individually. Teacher sets questions based on the dialogue and elicits answers. Questions on the student’s personal experience are also asked. A few more examples are given for the function using pictures, real objects or dramatization. The learners are helped to discover the rules underlying the functional expression or structure and its form in speech and writing. Approaches and Methods of Teaching English 181 = The pupils are given activities to recognize and interpret the functions. a __ A few more oral production activities are given proceeding from guided to free communication activities. = Children copy the dialogues if they are not in their course books. a Samples of written homework are provided for the children. = The functions learnt orally are evaluated. 18.5.5 Techniques used in Communicative Approach In Communicative Language teaching, the following techniques can be used in the classroom. — Language games provide the play-way method of developing oral communication skills. Language games such as word hunt, word building, word puzzles, tongue twisters etc., can be used — Mind energizing tasks: Communicative activities are based on the implicit recognition that a learner learns best when his/her mind is on tasks to be done in the language rather than on language itself. Thus many problem-solving activities are a part of the Communicative Approach. — Role-Play: Since the ability to manipulate language in a social context is an important aspect of communicative competence, most communicative materials include role-play as part of the activities — Retrieving text order: This is done through scrambled sentences and scrambled picture techniques. — Group work/Pair work forms an important part of any communicative activity, for peer interaction is an effective means of acquiring some language features which are not available in a formal teacher-centred class. — Other techniques include storytelling, question and answer session, interview, debate, group discussion, expressing opinions, giving comments, narrating a sequence of events, preparing gist of text, letter writing, writing of dialogues, reports and notices. 18.5.6 Merits of the Communicative Approach e By interacting in pairs and small groups, pupils feel confident and do better. Learning becomes a self-generating exercise. e The pupils get more language practice.