AP Chemistry Formula Sheet 2016, Study notes of Chemistry

Download AP Chemistry Formula Sheet 2016 and more Study notes Chemistry in PDF only on Docsity! 1 AP Chemistry Summer Work 2016 You will need to obtain your textbook before summer break! Chemistry, 9th edition, Raymond Chang ***NOTE: There is no need to print any portion of this packet.*** Part I: Memorization AP Chemistry can be a difficult course. It is not all about memorization, but there are some things you simply must memorize. It is essential for success in learning the concepts covered in this course. It is to your advantage to memorize the material in this packet well before the first day of school and review it often. As I am sure you know, true learning (and retention) will come only from reviewing material regularly, as opposed to cramming. You will be quizzed on this material within the first full week of the school year, so plan ahead in order to be successful! Make flashcards, have friends and family quiz you, take this packet with you on vacation, or do whatever else it takes to get this information firmly planted in your head! Spending a mere five to ten minutes each day looking this over will be far more effective in the long run than attempting to cram the night before the quiz. DO NOT PROCRASTINATE!!! The topics of memorization are listed below, and the details are covered throughout this packet. Also, you may find much of this material outlined in your Honors Chemistry / first year course notes. If you still have them lying around somewhere dig them out and look them over. They will also be a valuable reference tool throughout the year. 1. Solubility rules 2. Rules for determining oxidation numbers 3. Polyatomic ions (name, charge, symbol) 4. Rules for naming ionic compounds 5. Variable valences (charges) and colors for transition metal ions in solution 6. Rules for naming acids, and the seven strong acids 7. Element symbols and naturally occurring forms 8. Units and conversions 9. Common lab equipment (name -spelled correctly- and function) 2 Solubility Rules 1. All compounds containing alkali metal cations and the ammonium ion are soluble. 2. All compounds containing NO3 -, ClO4 -, ClO3 -, HCO3 - and C2H3O2 - anions are soluble. 3. All chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble EXCEPT those containing Ag+, Pb2+, or Hg2+. 4. All sulfates are soluble EXCEPT those containing Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, or Ba2+. 5. All hydroxides are insoluble EXCEPT compounds of the alkali metals, NH4 +, Sr2+, or Ba2+. Ca2+ is temperature dependent. 6. All compounds containing PO4 3-, S2-, CO3 2- and SO3 2- ions are insoluble EXCEPT compounds of the alkali metals or NH4 +. These are generalizations. We will learn later in the year that many compounds are slightly soluble, which will complicate things slightly. However, memorizing these generalizations now is essential for topics covered early in the year, and it will make our study of solubility later in the year easier. Rules for determining Oxidation Number Oxidation Number: A number assigned to an atom in a molecular compound or molecular ion that indicates the distribution of electrons among the bonded atoms. 1. In free elements (including diatomic ones) each atom has an oxidation number of zero. 2. For monatomic ions the oxidation number is equal to the charge of the ion. 3. The more electronegative element in a binary compound is assigned the number equal to the charge it would have if it were an ion. 4. Fluorine has an oxidation number of –1 in ALL of its compounds. Other halogens have negative oxidation numbers when they occur as halide ions in their compounds, but when combined with oxygen they have positive oxidation numbers. 5. The oxidation number of oxygen is –2 unless it is combined with fluorine (when it is +2) or in peroxides (when it is –1). 6. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when bonded to metals in binary compounds. In such cases its oxidation number is –1. 7. In compounds, the elements of groups one and two as well as aluminum have oxidation numbers of +1, +2, and +3 respectively. 8. In a neutral molecule the sum of all the oxidation numbers must be zero. 9. In a polyatomic ion the sum of all of the oxidation numbers in the ion must equal the net charge of the ion. 10. Oxidation numbers do not have to be integers, though they typically are. (Ex: In O2 - each O has an oxidation number of –1/2.) 5 Rules for Naming an Acid 1. When the name of the anion ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the prefix hydro- and the stem of the anion has the suffix –ic. This is followed by the word acid. Pattern: hydro _____ ic acid Examples: HCl = hydrochloric acid HCN = hydrocyanic acid 2. When the name of the anion ends in –ite, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix –ous. This is followed by the word acid. Pattern: _____ ous acid Example: HNO2 = nitrous acid 3. When the name of the anion ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix –ic. This is followed by the word acid. Pattern: _____ ic acid Example: HNO3 = nitric acid Strong Acids Hydrochloric acid Hydrobromic acid Hydroiodic acid Perchloric acid Chloric acid Nitric acid Sulfuric acid *A few others are debatable, but these are certain. Common Elements and Symbols: See page 12 (Table 1.1) of Chang textbook The periodic table used in AP Chemistry does not include element names, only symbols! Diatomic Molecules: H, O, F, Br, I, N, Cl These seven elements exist as diatomic molecules in their natural state, while phosphorus exists as P4. Memorize them! SI Units and Conversions: See pages 16-17 (Tables 1.2-1.3) of Chang textbook Common Lab Equipment: Attached to the end of this document 6 Part II: Reading Our first unit of AP Chemistry is entirely review from Honors Chemistry / first year chemistry. Thus, we should be able to move through this unit quickly. To ensure that we do, you will read and study some of the material (chapters 1 - 3) from the textbook over the summer. It is essential that we move through the Unit I content quickly so that we have adequate time for our laboratory work, as well as for subsequent units that are not simply review of your previous course. Topics covered in Unit I: Measurement, etc. (Includes sig figs) Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Includes nomenclature and chemical formulas) Stoichiometry (Some of the problems are more complex this time around, but the material hasn’t changed.) Organic chemistry (No more depth than in Honors Chemistry) Note-taking: When you read from a textbook -paper or online- you should work to understand the straightforward material. This will not likely happen from reading through it once, which is why you should take reading notes. The notes become your study guide so that you do not need to repeatedly read the chapter to study and master the basic information. At this level I do not require a specific format for reading notes. The minimum requirement is that you complete the practice exercises embedded in the reading and show your work. There is always a worked example before each practice exercise so that you have some guidance if / when you get stuck. (The example and practice will be highlighted in a beige box.) The answers to the practice problems can be found at the end of each chapter, after all of the end-of-chapter problems. Please check them as you complete them so that you know on day one what you need help with. Try to redo those that are incorrect. If you get stuck, try working backwards from the answer given. You will gain far more from going through this process than you will from asking someone to present the solution to you, and it will save valuable class time when we are going over problems. Leaving a question blank is never acceptable; you will learn more from your mistakes than you will from a blank piece of paper! It is advisable to take reading notes that include definitions, formulas, key concepts, solutions to practice exercises, and questions that you have. Your reading notes should have a title, typically the chapter title, so that you can easily find them. Each section heading should be included so that you can easily find particular pieces of information. Include a summary statement for each section in addition to a vocabulary list. Also include any important equations, formulas, constants, and/or units. If any lists and/or summaries are presented in the chapter, you may wish to include those. However, if you already know some of the material well, then it is not necessary to write down that material. Keep your goal in mind. Your goal is to create a useful study guide for each chapter. It can be as long or as short as necessary for your needs. There will be a minimal amount of formal lecture during the first unit. We will, however, go over all of the practice problems in class and you will have the opportunity to ask questions and get answers related to all of the chapters that you read over the summer before being required to complete the assigned end-of-chapter problems. 7 AP Chemistry Unit I Text Assignments Not all of this is summer work, only the reading assignments with embedded practice exercises. However, if you are comfortable with the material and wish to complete some of the end-of- chapter problems you will be ahead when school begins. That is up to you. Chapter 1 - Chemistry: The Study of Change § Read, take notes, and complete all practice exercises § Focus on vocabulary and tables § Make note of Tables 1.1, 1.2 1.3 § Know how to do temp conversions (use 2 decimal places with K) and density calculations § Practice scientific notation and rules for sig figs Additional resources: Honors Chemistry Unit I End of chapter problems: (10) 12, 16, 22, 26, 30, 32, 36, 52, 54, 62 Chapter 2 - Atoms, Molecules, and Ions § Read, take notes, and complete all practice exercises § Focus on vocabulary and figures § Make note of Figures 2.3-2.8 and 2.12 § Know all components of the atomic theory and contributions of named scientists § Know all information about subatomic particles § Know rules for naming all types of compounds Additional resources: Honors Chemistry Units II and III There are more detailed chapters coming on topics such as the periodic table; do not feel the need to go above and beyond what you find in this particular chapter at this time. End of chapter problems: (12) 16, 26, 36, 46, 50, 58, 60, 62, 66, 68, 72, 76 Chapter 3 - Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions § Read, take notes, and complete all practice exercises § Focus on vocabulary and mass calculations/terms § Focus on spectrometry, as it is relatively new to you and will be used in lab § Know how to calculate percent composition and empirical formulas § Know how to balance equations § Know how to utilize mole ratios in various applications § Know how to calculate and utilize limiting reagents § Know how to calculate percent yield and percent error Additional resources: Honors Chemistry Unit V End of chapter problems: (24) SHOW YOUR WORK FOR ALL CALCULATIONS! 1, 4, 9, 10, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 30, 32, 34 42, 50, 57, 60, 66, 74, 78, 86, 90, 100, 110, 112 Laboratory Equipment J] Watch glass Crucible and cover Evaporating dish Pneumatic trough Beaker Safety goggles (ar) Florence Plastic wash Dropper Funnel (Q) oe flask bottle pipet Enenmeyor Rubber stopper: flask ° Glass rod with nichrome wires J (for flame testing) Test tube holder Clay triangle Rubber tubing Crucible tongs ie Metal spatula renee Qaseomom!f twtis Test tube brush Square Wire gauze | wEy SSR mee Si Triangular file Tripod — ———— 400-mL; glass beakers may be heated. Buret: glass; common sizes are 25-mL, and 50-mL, used to measure volumes of solutions in titrations Ceramic square: used under hot apparatus or gh Clamps: the following types of, clamps may be fastened io support apparatus: buretitest-tube clamp, clamp holder, double buret clamp, ring clamp, 3-pronged jaw clamp. Clay triangle: wire frame with porcelain supports, used tw support a crucible Condenser: giass; used in distillation procedur Crucible and cover: porcelain, used to heat small amounts of solid substances ut high temperatures. Crucible tongs: iron or nickel, used to pick up und hold small items. Dropper pipet: gless tip with rubber bulb, used to transfer small volumes of liquid Erlenmeyer flask be heated, ased in ai $. common sizes are 100-mL, 250-mL; may stions. Evaporating dish: porcelain, used to contain small volumes of liquid being evaporated. Florence flask: glass, common sizes are 125-mL, 250-mL, 500-mL, may be heated, used in making and for storing solutions. Forceps: metal, used to hold or pick up small objects: Funnel: glass or plastic, common size holds 12.5-cm diameter filter paper. Gas burner: constructed of metal; connected to a gas supply with rubber tubing; used to heat chemicals (dry or in solution) in beakers, tubes, and crucibles Gas collecting tube: glass, marked in mL intervals; used to measure olumes ss rod with nichrome wire: used in flame «ests. duated cylinder: glass or plastic, common sizes are 10-mL, mL, 100-mL, used (0 measure approximate volumes; must act be cated. Graduated pipet: glass, common sizes are 10-rn mL; used to asure solution volumes; less accurate chan a volumetric pipet.  Double buret clamp — — may be used to grind crystals and lumpy chemicals to a powder. Pipet bulb: rubber, used in filling a pipet with a solution, a pipet must never be filled by mouth. Plastic wash bottle: flexible plastic, squeeze sides to dispense water. Platform balance: also known as a triple beam balance. Pneumatic trough: galvanized container with shelf, used in experi- ments where a gas is collected. Ringstand: metal rod fixed upright in a heavy metal base; has many uses as a support Rubber stoppers: several sizes Rubber tubing: used to connect apparatus so as to transfer liquids or gases Safety goggles: plastic; must be worn at all times while working in the laboratory Screw clamp, pinch clamp: metal, used to block off rubber tubbing Spatula, scoopula: metal or porcelain; used to transfer solid chemicals; the scoopula has a larger capacity Condenser policeman Graduated Ring clamp Volumetric | | Graduated pipet cylinder Thermometer Pinch clamp Gas collecting t tube es — Pipet bulb ‘Screw clamp pipet Platform balance (triple beam) Stirring rod and rubber policeman: glass with rubber sleeve; used to stir, assist in pouring liquids, and for removing precipitates from a container. Test tube brush: bristles with wire handle, used to scrub small diameter glassware. Test tube holder: spring metal, used to hold test tubes or glass tubing Test tube rack: wood or plastic, holds test tubes in a vertical position Test tubes: glass, common sizes small (13 mm x 100 mm), medium (20 mm x 150 mm), large (25 mm x 200 mm), may be heated Thermometer: mercury in glass, common range ~ 10°C to 110°C. ‘Triangular file: metal, uscd to scratch glass tubing prior to breaking to desired length Tripod: iron, used to support containers of chemicals above the flame of a burner Volumetric pipet: glass, common sizes are 10-mL, 25-mL., used to measure solution volumes accurately, must not be heated Watch glass: glass, used to cover an evaporating dish or beaker Wide-mouth bottle: glass, used with pneumatic trough Wire gauze: used to spread the heat of a burner flame