ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10., Exams of Health sciences

Download ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. and more Exams Health sciences in PDF only on Docsity! ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. WEEK 10 Human Behavioral Ecology ➢ Make predictions about human behavior ➢ Given a certain set of payoffs and rational actors ○ What is “optimal behavior” ➢ Ex. Optimal Foraging Theory ○ Currency = calories (or fat, proteins, etc.) ➢ In the given enviro. ○ How should a person maximize payoffs? ➢ Have to know what was available ○ Then create predictions for arch. Record Subsistence Systems ➢ Humans make choices about what to eat ○ How do they make those decisions? ○ Ex. Cree duck hunter vs. Inuit seal hunter Optimal Foraging ➢ Cost-Benefit mode ○ Cost=Time ○ Benefit=Calories ➢ Each prey item has: ○ Payoff (calories) ○ Search Time - seasons ○ Handling Time ➢ Prey is ranked ○ What types of animals=highest rank? ■ Large ones ○ What animals are most rare (> search) ■ Large ones ➢ Mathematical models make predictions ○ If rabbit = X kcal, Elk = Y kcal ○ If rabbit encounter rate = Z /hr ○ If elk encounter rate = W / hr ➢ Can construct models about optimal behavior Patch Choice ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ➢ Other models, “patch choice” make predictions about mobility ○ How long should a person stay in a gathering patch ○ Given law of diminishing returns ○ But also travel costs to a new seed patch ➢ But can construct models about optimal behavior ○ And settlement patterns Optimality Models ➢ If people are not “optimal” ○ What could explain this? ○ Other factors at work: ■ Too many people/overcrowding ■ Using diff. Technologies ■ Other payoffs more important (not calories) ● Prestige ● Family size ➢ We then look for those factors ➢ Important is to PREDICT the record ○ Under certain conditions (ex. “Optimal foraging”) Subsistence / Settlement Systems ➢ People solve subsistence and settlement issues in very different ways ➢ What are some of those subsistence-settlement systems? Subsistence Systems ➢ Hunting and gathering - no field or crops ○ Foragers (travelers) - time minimizers ■ Tend to be mobile, travel long distances ○ Collectors (processors) - space/lamd minimizers ■ Tend to be sedentary ➢ EX. Seasonal Round: Foragers - move around landscape throughout the seasons ○ Material technologies ■ Light weight and generalized tools ○ Storage ■ Not much ➢ Ex. Seasonal Round: Collectors ○ Material Technologies ■ Specialized tools ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ➢ Tradeoff between Management and Overexploitation ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ○ Hunter-gatherers helped drive species to extinction ○ Many examples of overexploitation ➢ All societies do this… ○ Extinct animals in australia, south and north america, Europe, Africa ■ Sabor tooth ■ flying ducks in califronia never discovered alive ➢ Example: Easter Island (Rapa Nui) ○ Middle of Pacific Ocean ○ Populated polynesians 800-1200ad - brought chickens, rats, yams ○ Tropical Paradise - Available Resources: ■ Wood, Rich volcanic soil, obsidian, plentiful seafood ➢ 1,000 yrs later ○ Europeans arrived ○ Landscape and environment dramatically changed ○ WHAT HAPPENED? ■ Did ppl destroy environment and society collapse? ■ Or adapt? ➢ Theories ○ Competition between villages ➢ Result of complex series of factors ○ Population increase ■ Peak in ad 1500=7,000 ppl ○ Over-consumption of natural resources ■ Deforestation - why? ● Jared Diamond hypothesis: ○ Woood used for boats, rope, moving statues ○ Cleared land for agriculture ● Terry Hunt and Carl Lipo ○ Idea rat eat seed of trees ■ Rapid decline to 2,000 people by 1750 ● Jard Diamond: warfare ● Hunt and Lipo: Disease and slave trade ➢ Deforestation resulted in ○ Loss of plant and animal habitat ○ Soil erosion ➢ Loss of forest resources led to ○ Exhaustion of ocean resources ○ No boars for fishing or travel ■ Isolation ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ○ Warfare ➢ Why didnt people stop before it was too late? ➢ What were people thinking when the last tree died? ➢ What can WE learn from this history? ➢ Is earth a large Rapa Nui? ○ Can we generalize? ➢ People did not disappear from Rapa Nui ○ Adapted to new conditions ○ New technologies and social systems evolved (ex. rock mulch garden) ➢ What does this mean for our civilization? ➢ Can we avoid pitfalls of previous civilizations? Human Health and Disease ➢ Did people in past suffer from diseases? YES A LOT. ➢ Arch. has much to contribute ➢ Sources of information: ○ Written records (historical) ○ Bioarchaeology ■ Study if skeletons, mummies ○ Recovery of infectious agents ■ Parasites ○ Paleogenomics ■ Genetic material of infectious agents (dont habitually brush teeth) ➢ Historical Records ○ Not specific ○ Ex. cause of death = “convulsions” or “bleeding” ■ Symptoms of diseases as we know them today ○ Useful for population-level information ■ And corroborating information ➢ Bioarchaeology - Osteological ➢ Best for CHRONIC diseases; individual level ➢ Only those that leave evidence on bones ➢ Infectious diseases: ○ Tuberculosis, syphilis ➢ Non infectious: ○ Osteoma, Osteroarthrtis ➢ Long-term anemia ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ➢ Yet without, surgery could not have advanced ○ Would have to operate on living people ■ Where to cut? Not learn abt internal diseases, not learn abt pregnancy, etc. ➢ We owe debt to people exhumed ➢ Effects on society? ➢ Dramatic reduction in child mortality globally ➢ In ancient times about 50% of children died before age 15 yrs ○ Abt 25-30% before 1 yr ➢ Similar in modern/recent hunter-gatherer populations ○ With no modern medicine/vaccines ○ 30% die before age 1 year; 50% before puberty ➢ Hard to imagine truama and suffering ➢ What did children die of in ancient times? ○ Overwhelming, infectious dieseases ➢ Whar do most children die of today? Accidents ➢ Life expectancy, for most of history about 30-40 yrs ○ Since 1800, has doubled ○ Even lowest country today (Central Africa Republic; n=53 yrs) higher than highest country in 1800 ○ Disparaties persist ➢ Summary: ➢ Arch. shows health has improved overtime ○ DRAMATICALLY ○ Attributre to science and knowledge ○ Also social institutions that support ■ Reflect societal value systems ○ Archaeology also shows most recent and modern diseases ■ Also present in past ■ With some exceptions ● Hearing loss, vission issues, diabetes, allergies much lower in past ● No pandemics (world not inter-connected) ● Definitely epidemics Week 11 Archaeology Today ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. Human Evolution ● More and more archaeological data closer to present ● Important “events” (remember evolution is a process) 1. Bipedalism 2. Tools 3. Language 4. Art Bipedalism ● How do we know an ancestor walked upright? 1. Bowl-shaped pelvis (compared to chimpanzees pelvis) 2. Angled hip and knee joints 3. S-shaped vertebral column - chimp is C-shaped 4. Big toe, in line with others 5. Footprints! ● Ancestors bipedal ○ At least 3.5 mya ○ Probably 5 mya ● Why do humans become bipedal (theories) ? ○ Not about speed (humans are slow) 1. Prevent overheating 2. See over grasses 3. Efficient transport 4. Free hands for carrying things/making tools ● Brain size also increased ○ Brain is energetically VERY expensive ○ Why do we need big brains? ■ Neandertals, on average, had larger brains ■ Maybe make tools? ■ Cultural transmission? ■ Learning? ■ Oldest tools = oldowan ■ ABT 2.6-3 my ● Gona, ethiopia ● Lake Turkana, Kenya ● Simple broken rocks ● Cut marks on bones Tools ● Why did humans start using tools? ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. 1. Accessing new foods (bone marrow) ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ○ Usually for “useful” characteristics ○ E.g. larger seeds, sweeter taste ● Plant or animal has difficult reproducing on own ● Species dependent on humans (co-evolution vice versa) Concomitants of Agriculture Agriculture usually part of package of traits 1. Sedentism ( ppl not as mobile) 2. Increased storage 3. Population increase 4. Social stratification 5. Environmental degradation 6. Increase in disease and poorer health 7. New material technologies Why adopt agriculture? Hunter-Gatherers: ● Work less (20hrs/week vs 40+ hrs/ week for agriculture) ● Less disease (mobile) ● Less conflict/warfare ● More predictable and diverse diet ● Not bc HGs don't understand how plants grow Theories on Origins of Agriculture Big Debate. Likely Factors: 1. Environmental Change in Holocene a. More CO2 make plants more productive 2. Population Pressure a. Need lots of land to hunt and gather 3. Social Causes a. Elites control land and need surplus 4. Coevolution a. Outcome of long-term dependence on plants b. Humans help plants, plants help humans 1. When do states appear? States and Empires a. Before or after agriculture? AFTER! 5500 BP 2. Where do first states appear? a. Mesopotamia = Tigris and Euphrates b. NOT where agriculture first started 3. Soon thereafter: ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. a. Egypt, China, Indus RIver Valley ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. b. Mesoamerica by 2500 BP c. South America by 2000 BP ● In a state people have differential access to power POWER = ability to force others to do what they may not otherwise do - By virtue of access to sanctions ● Economic Power ○ Resources, including food ● Physical Power ○ Military, Police force ● Ideological Power ○ Symbols, Religion ● In hunting and gathering ppl can't force these powers ● Characteristics of States: ○ How can we tell from the archaeological record? ○ 10 CRITERIA 1. Cities (Urban): ● Large densely-populated ● Usually 40,000+ people 2. Food- Surpluses ● Agriculture and storage 3. Full-time specialists ● Farmers, Priests, Craftworkers, etc. 4. Stratification ● People with prestige and authority 5. Decline of Kin-Based Authority ● Laws and Government 6. Standing Army ● Will of leaders physically imposed 7. Long-Distance Trade ● Markets, controlled by state 8. Achievements ● Writing, math, astronomy 9. Monumental Architecture ● Temples, palaces, etc 10. Distinctive Art Styles ● “Great Traditions” ● Knowing egyptian vs. mayan art 1. Integration Perspective (rights given away) ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. i. To support and perpetuate elites Writing Systems Origins of Writing ● Develop independently in many areas of world ● Usually with state-level societies ○ Sometimes in chiefdoms ● Major Scripts and Date of Origin (LOOK ON PHONE) ● South American empires never developed writing ○ Used Quipus ■ To keep track of things ○ Is this writing? ● Writing used to record and keep track of many things ○ Transactions ○ Laws ○ Taxes ○ People ● But also for political and social purposes ○ Stories and myths ○ History ○ Propaganda ● Also to bamboozle people and discourage critical thinking ● Many different media ○ Stone ○ Paper ○ Bamboo ○ Wood ○ Metal ○ Bone Proto-Writing ● Precursors of writing in Mesopotamia ca. 7000 BP ● Consistent of seals and/or signatures ● Recorded transaction, counting items ● NOT TRUE WRITING ● Around 5500 appears to be more like true writing ● Script = characters used ○ I.e. Roman, Cyrillic, Chinese ● Language = spoken word ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ○ I.e. English, Mandarin, Hopi ● Same script can be used to write in different languages ● People often borrow scripts (c and k same sound ) ○ Add new symbols for sounds in their language ○ And drop other symbols ● Writing systems evolve and change, as does language ○ Languages change faster than writing ○ Writing more conservative ● Why do we write: ○ Through, Cough, Thought, Dough, Bough (these used to have same sound - language evolved not writing) ○ With the same letters, yet they sound different Chinese Writing ● Evolution of symbols very clear from study of ancient scripts ● Evolution of sign for horse Types of Writing Systems ● Pictographic ○ Represent words or ideas ○ Elements visually portray associated meanings ○ I.e. box for house, or stick figure for human ➔ Easy to decipher meaning of texts ◆ Even if language unknown ◆ Don’t need to speak language to read text ◆ Universal understanding ➔ But can never know how language actually sounded ➔ Script preserves meaning not language ● Syllabic ○ Syllables represented by signs ○ Used to phonetically spell words ➔ 60-200 individual signs ● Alphabetic ○ Signs represent individual distinctive sounds of phonemes = spoken language ➔ 20-60 Individual signs ● ALPHABETIC AND SYLLABIC ➔ Have to know language and script to decipher ◆ Harder to decipher meaning of texts ➔ But possible to know what language sounded like ➔ Script Preserves language not meaning ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. ● Some scripts we can “speak” ○ But not understand (ex. runes) ● Others we can understand ○ But not speak (ex. early chinese) ● STILL MANY UNDECIPHERED SCRIPTS (LOOK ON PHONE) Cuneiform ● Developed by Sumerian state 5100 BP ○ Used by many other states ○ (ex. Hittities, Babylonians) ○ Script abandoned by 2000 BP; knowledge lost ● In 1700s assumed to be decoration ● Mid 1800s Henry Warlinson begins to decipher texts ● Cliffs at Behistun, in Zagros MTns ○ One passage, 3 different languages ● Sumerian cuneiform deciphered (gilgamesh, snake charmers) ○ We know rich details about life Engaging the Public and the Role of Science in Archaeology Archaeology and the Public ● Public finds archaeology interesting ○ But usually misinformed ○ Why? ■ Arch’s publish in scientific journals ● Rarely for general public ■ Public not trained in arch. Thinking ● Or interpreting data ■ Instead learn from ● Popular media (books,films,TV) ● For profit enterprises (indiana jones) ○ Example : chariots of the Gods ■ Over 8 million copies ■ His arguments ● 1. Archaeologists are close minded ● 2. Ancient Societies are not “advanced” (too stupid) enough to invent pyramids ● Therefore? MUST BE ALIENS ■ Pseudo-archaeology: ● Gather as much “evidence” as possible ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10. Who owns the past? ● Archaeologists often study past of “other” people ○ Can be politically charged ● Does everyone “own” the past? ● Or only some people? ● Archaeology: it is our collective past ○ We all own the past ○ No one group should interpret or control Archaeological Viewpoint ● Sites are IRREPLACEABLE resources ● Must be conserved and managed ● Sites are part of a shared HERITAGE ○ National and human heritage ○ We all collectively own and learn from the past ● People who plunder, rob us all of that heritage ○ Often committing a crime ● Federal, state, and local agencies need to protect ● 1906 American Antiquities Act ○ Destroying sites on US land a crime ■ Jail time and fine ○ Does not protect sites on private land ● National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) ○ 1966 ○ Gave more protection ○ Included a “Section 106” ○ Impacted sites on Federal Land have to be “mitigated” ● California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) ○ 1970 ○ Some protection for sites on state and private land ● All people deserve to have their story told ● Archaeologists work to do that ● But treat traces of the past with respect ● Work with descendant communities ARCHAEOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 10.