The Impact of Group Dynamics on Categorization and Snap Judgments, Exams of Nursing

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AS.200.101 FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY EXAM Q & A 2024 • Types of perceptions ○ Vision (sight) ○ Audition (hearing) ○ Olfaction (smell) ○ Gustation (taste) ○ Somatosensation (touch) ○ Proprioception ○ Thermosensation ○ Nociception • Vision is our most dominant sense ○ Also dominates our brain ○ We understand vision the best • Sensation vs perception ○ Sensation --> stimulation of our sense organs by the world • Perception --> organizing sensory stimulation into a coherent picture of the world • Unconscious inference • Discounting the illuminant --> what is the quality of light in room and subtracting from light hitting your eye • 3D world • Retina is 2D • Cues to size and distance ○ Linear perspective ○ Motion • Magnification --> certain parts of eyes have ○ Refrigerator light illusion • Attention is linked with awareness ○ "Change blindness" --> failure to become aware of even big changes when we are not paying attention to it Theory of mind • Three mountains task ○ Child couldn't tell what was on the side for the adult • Mean monkey task ○ Even when kid should be motivated to exploit, they don’t do it  Kids can't think of other minds • False believe task • Babies are attached to pro-social behavior • Babies know good from bad • Babies prefer good • Change blindness • Heritability --> the proportion of trait variation that is explained by genetic variation ○ Not how "genetic" is trait X in some person, but how "genetic" are differences in trait X across people ○ When people differ in a trait, by how much do they differ because of genetics ○ e.g. eye color ~1, heart disease ~0.5, #eyes ~0 (when people differ in the number of eyes, it's not about genes, but probably an accident) ○ You can't ask for heritability in a single individual ○ Essentially everything related to personality is heritable  e.g. intelligence --> controversial □ People have different intelligences and they also perform differently on intelligence tests □ This shows that there is nothing about group differences • Group differences are entirely environmental ○ Even in traits that are highly heritable, if not treated well, the overall group cheated poorly doesn't do as well  Plant example • The Flynn Effect --> intelligence is increasing because our environment is helping us obtain and retain more intelligence • Parenting matters less than you think • One of the reasons for personality is why people behave a certain way in certain situations ○ Are people inherently good or inherently bad? ○ The way behave in situations based on personality and also the situation ○ How people behave in groups, etc. • Sheridan and King experiment (1972) ○ Subjects are show a (real) cute fluffy puppy ○ Asked to watch the puppy complete a task and shock it if it got the wrong answer ○ Each wrong answer increases the voltage up to 450 V ○ Course credit was earned upon arrival, so there is no obligation to continue ○ 77% of the people shocked the puppy just because someone said to shock it ○ Obedience to authority • Milgram obedience experiment ○ people will also shock other humans as well in the same situation ○ Was redone in 2009 and still 70% of people will administer the shock ○ Obedience --> doing something because someone told you to behave like that • Asch (1956) conformity test ○ Acting in a way because our peers are engaging in it ○ Peer pressure ○ People are given a task in which the answer is super easy  The people who are in the room give incorrect answers  You know the real answer, but you still say an incorrect answer because the others in the room also said an incorrect answer ○ If one of the people in the room give your answer, then increases the chance that you will also say your (correct) answer • Kitty Genovese --> attacked outside her apartment and was killed ○ 37 people saw the murder, but didn't call the police ○ Bystander Effect --> we won't do something if we are part of a bigger group because we think other people will do the thing (we don't intervene when we are in larger groups)  Diffusion of responsibility --> feeling less responsible for things when other people are involved  e.g. Florida teen recording man drowning but calls 911 • Different feelings when associated with certain groups • Henri Tajfel --> minimal group paradigm ○ Minimal way that you can divide people into groups and still have people care about them  People were brought into lab and asked to count how many dots are on the screen  Divide people by the number of dots they said into two groups - if you said high number vs low ◊ ◊ Hiring --> given qualification strong - weak and was told that the candidate was part of a fraternity or the black student union 🞂 Strong and weak qualification --> no effect of race 🞂 Moderate qualifications --> whites preferred over Blacks ⬥ Effects are especially likely when decisions are ◊ Fast (shoot or don't shoot) ◊ Ambiguous (hiring with unclear criteria or borderline qualifications) ◊ Subtle (how far to sit, how long to talk) ⬥ Implicit bias occurs when making judgements about race, age, sexuality, weight, disability, gender, gender-science, gender-career ◊ For each case people honestly say that they don't really have these biases  Explicit bias --> bias that we have that we would say out loud; we know we have this bias □ Explicit bias is going down in society □ Studied by asking questions • Light side of groups --> cooperating with other people allows us to learn more,etc • Prisoner's Dilemma --> the evolution of trust ○  Seems better to defect □ But if you have a reputation of defecting, then no one will trust you ○ If you cheat, no one trusts you; if you cooperate, people take advantage of you ○ Best strategy: copycat --> start with cooperation and just copy what the opponent did in the last round  Even better: copykitten --> like copycat, but cheat back only after you cheat twice in a row (the first could have been a mistake) □ Copycat with forgiveness • Ultimatum game --> proposer given 10 dollars and proposer decides how to split the 10 dollars between proposer and responder ○ Responder can accept and they get the split amount or responder can reject and both will get 0 • Public goods game --> everybody starts off with money ○ Pot in the middle that will triple the money and equally divide the money in the pot to the people ○ You might realize if you put in a little less in a generous crowd, then you can get more money --> social loafing • Study (spontaneous giving and calculated greed) --> public goods game under time restraints ○ Must make the decision quickly ○ If you fundamentally generous --> when making quick decision, you will give more ○ If you are fundamentally bad --> when making quick decision you will put in less ○ Results --> time pressure causes people to behave better  If you decide fast --> more generous  If you decide slower --> less generous Class notes: Love and Relationships • Close relationships = why + how we study them • Relationships matter ○ Relative odds of survival -148 studies (308,849 participants)  Social relationships --> strongest indicator, most important above other factors  Good for health, long life, and wealth • 633.3 billion dollars spent on fixing relationships • Relationships are so relevant to us --> like common sense ○ "opposites attract" vs "birds of a feather flock together" ○ Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) --> if we a profile of a disease resistance, we may be attracted to someone w/ other spectrum of disease resistance --> child has broader spectrum of resistance (OA)  Smelled T shits --> dissimilar smells --> attracted to person  Don't go to bed angry --> causes a pause in being tired which causes you to be less good negotiator ○ Long distance relationships = now not as different  Just as much commitment and faithfulness  The challenge is moving between long and short distance ○ Averageness is the critical determinant of attractiveness • What we think we know about our relationships doesn't always match our reality • Perspective on relationships ○ Relationships have been around forever ○ Modern day relationships are different ○ Hooking up is a new part of courtship - sleeping together prior to knowing someone ○ They are constantly changing • How do we study relationships ○ Love lab (?) ○ Speed dating ○ Virtual reality • Four horseman of the apocalypse ○ Criticism ○ Defensiveness ○ Contempt ○ Stonewalling • Experiments with relationships ○ Can we manipulate whether partners think their relationship is going well  Two partners --> list all the current problems in your relationship vs. list all the items in bedroom" □ Partner with 1st prompt is nervous watching the second person because they think they have the same prompt ○ How do we resist temptation of attractive person when we are in a relationship  Ignore them  Tell them we're not single  Don't find them too attractive ○ Morphing faces --> people in relationship matched face with those that are less attractive  Visual matching task --> people in a relationship picked the least attractive face to match the original face Class notes: Happiness Class notes 1128 Audio recording started: 1:31 PM Tuesday, November 28, 2017 • Happiness is a conversation ender --> if someone asks you what you want and you say happiness or it makes you happy, then they can't argue it and if the person asks why you want to be happy, then you can't answer ○ Happiness is something we think of as not requiring justification • We have different kinds of wants e.g. food and unlocking the mysteries of the mind ○ Your want for food and your want for unlocking the mysteries of the mind are different in many terms • Abraham Maslow - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ○ The order in which we experience our wants and needs ○ Torture --> the reasons its effective is because of this ○ Barkley Marathons --> most times no one finishes because it's so hard  "the running dead" - a marathon so ultra almost no on survives  Lazarus Lake quote --> base needs taking over ○ Testing the hierarchy  77,646 people in 51 of the world's poorest countries  Measured: □ Consumption adequacy --> are basic needs being met ⬥ do you know when and where your next meal will be - yes (CA), no (no CA) □ Autonomy --> free press, election, can you move your job □ Life satisfaction --> how happy are you with your life right now  Basic needs met, low autonomy, medium life satisfaction  Basic needs met, high autonomy, high life satisfaction  Basic needs not met, low autonomy, lowest life satisfaction  Basic needs not met, high autonomy, low life satisfaction  When there are a lot of uncertainties and aspects of your life that you can't control - you become unhappy  Autonomy matters less in life satisfaction if you are struggling with basic needs □ If you don’t have the opportunity to worry about it or room to worry about it in your life, then it doesn't affect your life satisfaction because physiological needs come first • Do we want what we need and does what we want make us happy? • Affective forecasting --> the ability to predict how you will feel in a certain situation ○ People were asked how they will feel if they win lottery or became a paraplegic  People think they will be more happy if they win the lottery, but over time (when enough time passes), then if either occurs, they will equally happy  Blog posts of terminally Ill patients experiments □ People who are terminally ill are asked to write a blog post and people who are not terminally ill are also asked to write a blog post in the perspective of the terminally ill patient □ Actual blog posts who are terminally ill write more positive posts and much less negative posts compared to the non-terminally ill patients  Last words of death row inmates --> similar experiment and similar result □ People who are in death row express more positive and less negative words than those who are not (but thinking in their perspective) ○ Impact bias --> the tendency to overestimate the difference of alternatives  If something bad happens, its really bad  If something good happens, its really good • Louisiana is the happiest state - (?) • Does money buy happiness? - yes and it peaks at 140-150 thousand ○ After the peak, plateaus or doesn’t really make you more happy ○ People think money will make them more happier than it really does  When money is low- they think they will be really unhappy  When money is high - they think they will be really happy ○ If money doesn't make you happy, then you probably aren't spending it right ○ How to buy happiness:  Prefer experiences to things □ They start the same, but as time passes, our satisfaction with experiences increases, while for things it decreases □ Maximizing (material things) vs (experiences) satisficing ⬥ Maximizing --> trying to find the best ◊ When buying things ⬥ Satisficing --> having a threshold and the first thing that passes the threshold, I'll take it ◊  Spend on others When experiencing something  Many small joys > a few big ones  Avoid comparison shopping ○ Positional concern --> we care not only about its value, but its position (its ranking)  Different things and experiences will have different positional concerns  2 cases given: □ Your yearly income is 50 thousand and others 25 thousands □ Your yearly incomes is 100 thousand and others earn 200 thousand □ Most people choose the first situation because they have more  Another 2 cases (doesn't show the same results as the first one) □ You have 2 weeks of vacations, others have 1 □ You have 4 weeks of vacation, others have 8 weeks □ Most people choose the second situation ⬥ It doesn't matter that you had more vacation, I want a good time with more vacation  Explains flatline of curve of money buying happiness □ If you see people with more money than you (when you have reached peak) then you feel less happy • Which experience should we buy ○ Experience sampling - iPhone app - what are you doing and how do you feel  People feel most happy when having sex  Doing nothing (just resting) is lowest happy because mind wanders towards negative things □ Also you don't self actualize by doing nothing  People are happy when doing something (experiencing something) • Happiness is something you do • Happiness is something you make • Synthesizing happiness ○ Brehm (1956): the free choice paradigm  You rank some things, you are then told to choose something to take home with you but they are objects in the middle of your rankings  Later when you re-rank --> you rank the thing you took or choose to be higher and you rank the thing you didn’t choose lower (put the one you chose as the best, and what you didn’t at a lower rank)  Cognitive dissonance --> discomfort at holding two conflicting beliefs or values □ So you change the rankings to match what you chose □ Creates a motivation to resolve this conflict by modifying or abandoning one of the conflicting beliefs ⬥ The one I chose must be best because I chose it and I choose things that are the best  Not choice a rationalization --> people with anterograde amnesia (Korsakoff's syndrome) had the same result when doing the free choice paradigm □ These people were asked to rank paintings, then a distracting task was given, and then they were asked to re-rank the paintings ⬥ They ranked the painting they chose as higher and the painting they didn't choose as lower even though they couldn't remember their choices  One reason that its hard to change your moral and political attitudes is that those attitudes change how you interpret evidence that you get in the first place □ They saw a game (Princeton vs Dartmouth) ⬥ Commentary made by each newspapers were very different ⬥ Students from each school were asked to watch a video of the football game and count the number of penalties ◊ Princeton fans notice more Dartmouth penalties than Princeton penalties ◊ Dartmouth fans notice more Princeton penalties than Dartmouth penalties ◊ They experience the game differently □ Blaming police differently based on politics when told that the protest is protest for abortion or protest for don't ask don't tell ○ Simpson's paradox  Overall admissions seemed like men were admitted more □ But if you look at each department it seemed like more women were admitted into each different department so it looks like women are being accepted more □ Discrepancy □ Applicants not equally distributed across departments □ Some departments are easier to get into it ⬥ More men apply to departments that are easier to get into  Politics will affect how you interpret the Simpson's paradox - you could accept the numbers or think that there is gender bias • Facts don’t change our minds - PEOPLE DO! Class notes: Mysteries of Psychology (sleep and dream) Do we dream in color? - influence of media on dream color • Sleep habits are not specific to us or to our culture ○ Preindustrial society people have similar sleep habit to us • When you don't sleep ○ Attention gets worse ○ Driving gets worse ○ If you just don't sleep - you get sick - you die  Study with rats --> rat was kept awake by turning the water disk --> it dies □ Monitoring sleep --> EEG (electroencephalogram) ⬥ Electrodes are put on your scalp and would monitor a course signal of brain activity (brain waves) ◊ Awake and paying attention = low amplitude, fast, irregular, beta waves ◊ Awake but no attentive - large regular alpha waves • Sleep stage #1 - brief transition when first falling asleep ○ Theta waves - jumpier • Sleep stages #2-4 ○ Slow wave sleep - delta waves • Sleep cycle --> deep sleep to REM sleep and back again ○ REM sleep --> dreams and sleep disorders • Ambien (insomnia prescription) --> side effects - sleep driving, eating ,walking • Nobody knows why we sleep --> we know what it does, but why do we need sleep (mystery) ○ We sleep at night to protect us from going out into the dangers of the night ○ Sleep repairs you --> shutting down your body to repair it • REM sleep = dreams • We don’t always remember our dreams but sometimes we do • Practicing remembering your dream --> makes you remember dream more • Lucid dreaming --> you are aware that you are dreaming and you can control your dream • Dreams: ○ Most dreams are bad - misfortunes in life ○ Men have more aggressive dreams than women ○ Americans have more aggressive dreams than Europeans ○ What we want in dreams:  Women: romance and adventure  Men: sex with strangers ○ Only ~10% dreams are sexual ○ Common dream --> being chased  No one knows why but it's the most common theme ○ We don’t know why we have dreams ○ Rats that run mazes will dream about running mazes  Dreams are an opportunity to consolidate the memories you make during the day ○ Do we really know the contents of our dreams?  We say that we dream in color, but in 1953 people said they dreamed in black/white, while ancient philosophers report dreaming in color --> explained by television in the 1900s, media was in black/white □ We don’t actually know what our own dreams are like ○ Dreams sometimes incorporate parts of the real world (your life)  How did your dream know to be running away from the police and to incorporate the alarm ringing as the siren of the police and you wake up  We don't know ○ Blind people also dream Review Review Session Introduction to Psychology Exam #3 State Trait beng. an anxious person | Personality Tests Personality Personality Inventories Proecive Techniques dy gd Minnesota Mutiphasc + Rorschach a person's characteristic style Personality inventory ‘of behaving, thinking, feeling and (MPi;p@.478) + Thematic Apperception interacting with others Test Ta) The “Big Five” "Sas Heritability Openness to Experience the proportion of trait variation that is Conscientiousness ‘explained by genetic variation Extraversion encase +1 Agreeableness ear dease = ‘Neuroticism Some “Universals” nett ten ae Emotions Experiments with relationships? Multidimensional Scaling Payhologists have done this experiment by rating emotions cent acai of 1-10 athow tated pas of emotions are tone ‘snother Formed a map of emotions using mulidimensional sang. How people protect ther elatonships? “visual matching ask eeeerQecver eeek eeee Multidimensional Scaling Universality ‘Automaticity Galvanic Skin Response The Four Fs Fighting Fleeing Feeding Having Sex lowa Gambling Task lowa Gambling Task Capgras’ Delusion — mem | fo ; 4 y ‘ones have been replaced by imposters, “You look ike my dad, but you are just an imposter of my dad”  “Impact Bias” The tendency to overestimate the difference of alternatives Happiness Blog Posts of Terminal Patients “tlw Harare of Needs? si AB ye How to buy happiness - Profer experiences to things = Spend on others Many small joys > a few big ones Avoid comparison shopping  ● Demo: Memory Test #1 ○ Person with smartphone will take a picture of words on the screen, everyone will see the words and try to remember. Words will be on the screen until all of the words can be read out loud and then they will be taken down. ○ Prof. Firestone puts a list of words on the board and everyone tries to remember if they have seen the words on the list in the original list of words ■ Which word do you feel most confident that you saw the word on the original list? ● Sweet was not on the list → we think it was on the list because the words in the original list were associated with sweet, some words rhymed with sweet, and some words were the opposite of sweet ○ FALSE MEMORY that was implanted by Prof. Firestone ● Memory → kind of time travel ○ Way to take information from one time of your life to another ■ Return to some previous time → travel back in time ● Memory is not just a filing cabinet ● WHAT do we remember? (content) ○ Semantic memory → facts, ideas, concepts ■ E.g. who is the president of JHU? ○ Episodic memory → experiences, events, first-person knowledge ■ E.g. remembering how you felt when you acceptance from JHU ● Emotions, etc → like videotape in mind of what happened at the moment ○ Procedural memory → skills, tasks, habits ■ How to do things ● WHEN do we remember ○ Sensory memory → very precise, rich experience of world for a second and then vanishes (lasts seconds) ○ Short term memory → several seconds, minutes, or hours ○ Long term memory → memories that seem to last forever e.g. phone numbers, birthdays, etc. ● HOW do we remember → filing cabinet analogy, memory of computer analogy ○ Encoding, storage, (consolidation), retrieval ○ Consolidation → how a memory you encoded, get to be laid down in LTM ■ Hitting “save” in word doc and getting saved in RAM ● Dissociability of different distinctions of memory → how one part works without the other ● Patient HM (Henry Molaison) → suffered from seizures and so the piece of brain that was causing seizures was removed ○ Crude method → drilled hole, stuck in head and moved around to get rid of that peculiar part of brain ○ Removed Hippocampal → structure important for memory ■ Missing both hippocampi ○ The man who forgot everything ● Amnesia → inability to remember ○ Demo #2: amnesia acting ■ Point → very hard to become someone who forgets everything ○ Amnesia is NOT forgetting everything ■ E.g. patient HM could still reason, use language, do fine motor skills, see fine ● HM lost semantic memory ○ Video of EP → doesn’t remember what he just said, so he repeats it ■ Not aware that he told the same story multiple times ○ Anterograde amnesia → inability to form new memories ■ Missing “consolidation” step ○ Retrograde amnesia → inability to retrieve old memories ○ Difference between semantic and procedural memory in Patient HM ■ Task, tracing star, but only looking at a mirror while tracing it ■ Patient HM learns to do the task even though he has not memory of doing the task ● He doesn’t even remember the scientists ■ Proves that there truly is a difference between the different systems of memory because he remembers different things (dissociability) ● Sensory memory → memory of the senses ○ Iconic memory → visual sense memory ● Memory test #2 → 12 random letters were flashed on the screen, and students try to remember ○ Most only remember 4 of the 12 letters ● Memory test #3 → 12 letters shown on board again and then an arrow appears next to one row ○ Students can say the letters in the arrow row ● These two memory tests shows that all 12 letters were somehow in your head ● Sensory memory is high capacity but decays quickly ● Memory test #4 → string of numbers are shown on board really quickly and then students must recite ○ Short term memory capacity is 7+/- 2 ■ Decays without rehearsal ■ Primacy effect → remembering the first few numbers because it occurs firsts ■ Recency effect → remembering the last few numbers because they are at the end ■ HM? There are no units?? ■ Short term memory is low capacity ● Memory test #5 → 10 numbers are grouped into chunks and are therefore more easily remembered ● Chunking → combining small pieces of information into larger, meaningful clusters ○ The meaningfulness of chunking depends on the person → a chunk meaningful to one person may not be meaningful to another ● Method of loci (increasing capacity) ○ The memory palace ○ Simonides → was in a banquet hall and there was fire, he survived and many did not; families of people who did not survive were looking for bodies ■ He could not remember each person when named, but he could remember where they were sitting ○ Memory of spatial details ○ People who win memory competitions use this method ○ Random lists of words can be remembered using this method → tedtalk example → putting things in your spacial awareness ● Long term memory capacity → massive capacity ○ Video of guy with amazing visual long term memory ○ People were shown 2500 objects at 3 seconds per object ■ At the end of this hour, you have a test where two object are shown and asked which have you seen? ● 93% success rate ■ Even on things that are the same but with different patterns (balloons) ● 88% success rate ■ Even on objects that are the exact same but one detail ● 87% success rate ● The importance of context in sorting through memory ○ Experiment → learned underwater, tested underwater; learned underwater, tested on land; learned on land, tested underwater; learned on land, tested on land ■ People who learn and tested in same environment had higher recall ○ Learning context should equal your recall context Conscious of the Past: Memory (Text Notes pg. 221-260) ● Jill Price can remember every single day of her life since the early 1980’s ○ She doesn’t necessarily enjoy it because she relives everyday of her life every single day ● Memory → the ability to store and retrieve information over time ○ Memory = residue of events - enduring changes that experience makes in our brains and leaves behind ○ Memory is only remarkably complex but also fragile ■ Sometimes memory is inaccurate ● 3 key functions of memory ○ Encoding → the process of transforming what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory ○ Storage → the process of maintaining information in memory over time ○ Retrieval → the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored ● Memories are made by combining information we ALREADY have in our brains with new information that comes in through our senses ○ Memories are constructed not recorded ● How we remember something depends on how we think about it at the time ● Study → participants presented with series of words and asked to make three types of judgement ○ Semantic judgments → think about the meaning of the words ■ People who looked at this had better memory for the words ○ Rhyme judgements → think about the sound of the words ○ Visual judgements → think about the appearance of the word ● Semantic encoding → the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory ○ Increased activity in lower left part of the frontal lobe and inner part of the left temporal lobe ■ More activity in this area = more likely to remember the information ● Visual imagery encoding → the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures ○ Simonides ○ When you create a visual image, you relate incoming information to knowledge already in memory ○ Creating two mental placeholders for information trying to be retained ■ Gives you more ways to remember something ● Organization encoding → the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items ■ A person’s physiological or psychological state at the time encoding is associated with the information that is encoded ○ Transfer appropriate processing → idea that a memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match ● Retrieval can strengthen a retrieved memory → easier to remember the information at a later time ○ Experiment → participants studied brief stories and then either studied them again or were given a retrieval test immediately ■ At the 5 minute test → participants who studied again did better retrieving ■ At 2 days and week test → participants who retrieved immediately did better ● Retrieval induced forgetting → a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items ○ Occurs during conversation ○ Can affect eyewitness memory ● The act of retrieval can change what we remember from an experience ○ Experiment findings → retrieving and vividly re experiencing memories of what participants actually did see at the museum led them to incorporate into their memory information that was not part of their original experience ● When trying to retrieve information → heightened activity in left frontal lobe ● Successfully remembering a past experience → activity in hippocampal region ● Successful recall of sensory details activates part of the brain that are sensitive to that sensory detail ○ E.g. recall of previously heard sounds → activity in auditory cortex ● Although retrieval seems like a single process, brain studies suggest that separately identifiable processes are at work ● childhood/infantile amnesia → not remembering the first few years of your life ○ Culture → first memories are seen later in cultures that place less emphasis on talking about the past ● Explicit memory → occurs when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences ● Implicit memory → past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of recollection ○ Not consciously recalled but their presence is “implied” by our actions ○ Procedural memory → the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things ■ Things your remember are automatically translated into actions ■ * the fact that people who have amnesia can acquire new procedural memories suggests that the hippocampal structures that are damaged are necessary for explicit memory but not for implicit procedural memory ○ Priming → an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of recent exposure to the stimulus ■ Mitchell study → participants studied black and white drawings that depicted everyday objects ● Later participants were shown fragmented versions of drawings → some depicted objects that had been studied earlier or objects that were not studied (done 17 years after) ● Participants correctly identified studied fragmented images better ■ Displayed even in amnesic patients ■ Reduced activity in various regions of the cortex that are activated when people perform an unprimed task ■ Perceptual priming → reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item ● fMRI → back of brain e.g visual cortex ● Right cerebral hemisphere ■ Conceptual priming → implicit memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object ● fMRI → front of brain e.g frontal lobs ● Left cerebral hemisphere ● Semantic memory → network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world ○ Hippocampus not required ● Episodic memory → collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place ○ “Mental time travel” back into time and forward ○ We rely heavily on episodic memory to envision our personal futures ● Collaborative memory → people remembering in groups ○ Collaborative groups tend to recall more target items that any individual ○ Collaboration benefits memory ■ Collaborative remembering = transactive memory ○ However when compared to nominal group (combined recall of several individuals recalling target items on their own) recall of collaborative groups is less ■ Collaborative inhibition → same number of individual working together recall fewer items than they would on their own ● Social loafing → let others do the work and don’t pull their own weight ● Memory failures: seven sins of memory ○ Transience → forgetting that occurs with the passage of time ■ Retroactive interference → situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier ■ Proactive interference → situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later ○ Absentmindedness → a lapse in attention that results in memory failure ■ Lack of attention → divided attention ■ Forgetting to carry out actions that we planned to do in the future ■ Prospective memory → remembering to do things in the future ● Failure in this = absentmindedness ○ Blocking → failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it ■ “Tip of tongue” ■ Especially relevant for the names of people and places ■ Gets worse as we age ○ Memory misattribution → assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source ■ Eyewitness misidentifications ■ Source memory → recall of when, where, and how information was acquired ■ Deja vu ■ People with damage to frontal lobes are especially prone to memory misattribution ■ False recognition → a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before ■ Class demo memory test with lots of words on board and sweet wasn’t on the list but we thought it was ■ When people experience a strong sense of familiarity about a person, object, or event but lack specific recollections → memory attribution can occur ○ Suggestibility → tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections ■ Possible to suggest entire episodes that did not even occur ○ Bias → the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences ■ Sometimes what people remember from their past says less about what actually happened than about what they think, feel, or believe now ■ Current mood can bias our recall ■ Consistency bias → bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present ■ Change bias → tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past ■ Egocentric bias → tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect ○ Persistence → intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget ■ Emotional experiences tend to be better remembered than nonemotional ones ● Emotional arousal focuses our attention on the central features of an event ■ Flashbulb memories → detailed recollections of when and where we heard about a shocking event ● E.g 9/11, death of JFK ■ Amygdala ● Seven sins are the cost we pay for benefits that allow memory to work as well as it does most of the time Psychology and the Law (Class Notes 10/12/17) ● Memory is like time travel --> revisit information in the past ● Flashbulb memory --> lots of detail associated with memory --> where they were when they received news, what they were doing, etc. ○ People report vivid memories of: (extremely confidently) ■ Where they were ■ What else was happening ■ How they learned the news ■ How they and others felt ■ What happened next ○ 43% gave inconsistent stories 3 years later on the above details ■ More likely with memories we retrieve often; they are vulnerable when outside the filing cabinet ○ Memory of 9/11 --> shared for a group of people ○ Memory of JFK death ○ Trial of OJ Simpson ○ Challenger explosion ● Ronald Cotton and Jennifer Thompson ○ Mental disorder ■ What is normal? - define normal - too broad ■ Clinically significant disturbance ■ About the individual ● Diagnose family? ● Mental illness may look in different cultures and peoples ● There is a set criteria to diagnose a disorder - like a checklist ● Advantage to putting people into “boxes” or categories → insurance ● Categorical vs dimensional approaches ● DSM - a system based on syndromes (correlated symptoms) ○ Research domain criteria (RDoC) - NIMH framework ○ Hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology ● Epidemiology - how common are mental disorders ● Lifetime prevalence - did they have it in any part of their lives ○ Adolescents higher than adults ■ Recall bias - might not remember what happened in their whole lifetime ■ Comorbidity --> more than one diagnosis (not represented on graph) ○ College students ■ 26.1 % are taken psychotropic medication ■ 12.1% is seen at counseling places ■ Go to counseling for both psychological disorders and non-disorder presenting concerns ● Etiology --> biopsychological model and levels of analysis ○ Causes of disorders ○ Pyramid (top to bottom) ■ Cultural ■ Social-familial → family, peer, relationships ■ Psychology → thoughts, feelings, actions ■ Biology → CNS structure and functioning, neurotransmitters, perinatal insult ■ Genetics → genetic risk and protective factors, genetic disorders ● Developmental epigenesis --> Development unfolds over time ○ Genetic, biological, and psychological, social-familial, and cultural factors interact with each other across time (transactional processes) to shape outcomes ○ Children and adult outcomes = probabilistic - not predetermined (we can only predict if they will have disorder) ● Diathesis-stress model --> underlying genetic vulnerability to a mental disability ● People are not utilizing treatment as much as we want and as much as we might think ○ Only about 50% are seeking treatment (adolescents with diagnosis) ○ Huge drop between adolescents and young adulthood ■ Change in attitude ■ Stigma ● You cannot treat a disorder just by changing the etiological factor that you identify to cause the disorder because many things influence the disorder and many things affect success of treatment ○ It’s not the only thing ○ Sometimes it's not feasible to change it ● Therapy is better→ long run no relapse ● Combination therapy protective against suicidal events ● In depression ○ Amygdala - emotion processing dysregulation ○ PFC lack of control/inhibition of amygdala ○ After CT treatment ■ Better DLPFC functioning in a cognitive task ■ Better amygdala functioning in an emotion processing task ● Treatment approaches ○ Take home points - it is complicated, but ■ General rule of thumb (for many disorders) - meds and combo faster, psychotherapy longer and less relapse ● On graph → everything converged ■ Etiology treatment target ○ Culturally, focus on medications and are often used first, but be cautious ■ The cautionary tale of anxiety medications ○ Many types of psychotherapy ● Basic science meets clinical psychology ○ People are not forthcoming or even lie when asked about suicidal ideation → they don’t want to admit ○ Implicit association task to predict suicide attempts → social psychology method to predict suicide attempts ■ Maybe clinical psychologists are mind readers after all… ■ Detects the strength of a person’s automatic representation of objects in memory Mental Illness (Text notes pg. 583-621) ● Virginia Woolf was bipolar ● Mental disorder → persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment ○ Dysfunction or deficits in the normal human psychological processes ○ People with mental disorders have problems with their perception, memory, learning, emotion, motivation, thinking, and social processes ● Until recently, mental disorders were thought to be the result of religious or supernatural forces e.g possession by demons or spirits ● Medical model → abnormal psychological experiences are contextualized as illnesses that, like physical illnesses, have biological and environmental causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures ○ First step of determining the problem is through diagnosis ■ Symptoms → subjectively reported behaviors, thoughts, and emotions ● Disorder → common set of signs and symptoms ● Disease → known pathological process affecting the body ● Diagnosis → determination as to whether a disorder or disease is present ● Viewing mental disorders as medical problems reminds us that people who are suffering deserve care and treatment not condemnation ● Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) → a classification system that describes the feature used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems ○ DSM II → Diagnostic criteria is vague and based on thin theoretical assumptions ○ DSM III → disorders are very detailed lists of symptoms (diagnostic criteria) ■ Increase in reliability and consistency ○ DSM-5 → 22 major categories ■ Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders, Bipolar and Related Disorders, Depressive Disorders, Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders, Dissociative Disorders, Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders, Feeding and Eating Disorders, Elimination Disorders, Sleep– Wake Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, Gender Dysphoria, Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders, Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders, Neurocognitive Disorders, Personality Disorders, Paraphilic Disorders, Other Mental Disorders, Medication-Induced Movement Disorders and Other Adverse Effects of Medication, Other Conditions that May be the Focus of Clinical Attention ● Comorbidity → co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual ● Medical model suggests that there is an etiology to psychological disorders ○ Also suggests that mental disorders have prognosis → a typical course over time and susceptibility to treatment and cure ● Biopsychosocial perspective → explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological psychological, and social factors ○ Biological → genetic and epigenetic, biochemical imbalances, abnormalities in brain structure and function ○ Psychological → maladaptive learning and coping, cognitive biases, dysfunctional attitudes, interpersonal problems ○ Social → poor socialization, stressful life experiences, cultural and social inequities ● Individuals can experience a similar psychological disorder for different reasons ● Diathesis-stress model → suggest that person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress ○ Diathesis = internal predisposition ● Thomas R. Insel (NIMH) → DSM is like a dictionary that provides labels and current definitions ● Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC) → new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them ○ Biological factors from genes to cells to brain circuits ○ Psychological domains such as learning, attention, memory ○ Social process and behaviors ○ Better understand what abnormalities cause different disorders and to classify disorders based on those underlying causes rather than on observed symptoms ■ Ultimately helps researchers come up with more effective treatments ● Psychiatric labels can have negative consequences because many carry negative stereotypes and stigma e.g. weakness ○ Stigma → 60% of people with diagnosable disorder do not seek treatment ○ Educating people does not dispel the stigma ○ LABELS STICK ■ Hallucinations → false perceptions experiences that have a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation ● Often auditory ■ Delusions → patently false beliefs, often bizarre and grandiose, that are maintained in spite of their irrationality ● Delusions of identify ● Delusions of persecution ■ Disorganized speech → severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrelated topics ● Difficulty organizing thought and focusing attention ■ Grossly disorganized behavior → behavior that is inappropriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals, often with specific motor disturbances ● Catatonic behavior → marked decrease in all movement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overactivity ○ Negative symptoms → deficits or disruptions to normal emotions and behaviors e.g., emotional and social withdrawal; apathy; poverty of speech; and other indications of the absence or insufficiency of normal behavior, motivation, and emotion ■ Cognitive symptoms → deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in executive functioning, attention, and working memory ○ Biological factors ■ Genetics → if related to someone with schizo, greater likelihood ■ Epigenetics ■ Dopamine hypothesis → the idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity ■ Precise role of neurotransmitters in schizo has yet to be determined ○ Neuroanatomy ■ Enlargement of ventricles ■ Progressive tissue loss ○ Psychological factors ■ Family environment ● Disturbed environment → increased likelihood of developing schizo ● Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) → condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, interest, or activities ○ Heterogeneous set of traits that cluster together in some families leaving some children with just a few mild ASK traits and others with a more severe form of the disorder ○ Impaired in empathizing and systemizing ■ Empathizing → knowing the mental states of other ■ Systemizing → understanding the rules that organize the structure and function of objects ○ Many successful ASD people ● Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) → a persistent pattern of severe problems with inattention and/or hyperactivity or impulsiveness that cause significant impairments in functioning ○ Has to have the symptoms for at 6 months in at least two settings ○ Can occur in adults too ○ Heritability = 76% ○ Smaller brain volumes ○ Drug treatment for ADHD is effective and decreases the risk of later psychological and academic problems ● Conduct disorder → persistent pattern of deviant behavior involving aggression to people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious rule violations ○ Biological and environmental factors interact to produce the disorder ■ E.g. maternal smoking during pregnancy, exposure to abuse, inherited genetics ○ Comorbid with ADHD ● Personality disorders → enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impaired functioning ○ 3 major categories ■ odd/eccentric ■ dramatic/erratic ■ anxious/inhibited ○ Controversial ■ Critics question whether having a problematic personality is really disorder ■ Distinct types vs. trait dimensions ● Antisocial personality disorder (APD)→ pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood ○ Adults who have this have history of conduct disorder ○ Sociopath, psychopath ● Extreme manifestation of abnormal behavior is when a person acts in direct opposition to drive for self preservation and engage sin intentionally self destructive behavior ○ Suicide → intentional self-inflicted death ■ 10th leading cause of death is US ○ Suicide attempt → person engages in potentially harmful behavior with some intention of dyring ○ Nonsuicidal self injury (NSSI) → direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in absence of any intent to die