Understanding Taxonomy, Evolution, and Classification of Organisms, Exams of Biology

Download Understanding Taxonomy, Evolution, and Classification of Organisms and more Exams Biology in PDF only on Docsity! Bio 242 Exam Verified Questions with Answers 2024 Test Taxonomy - Correct answer The field of biology that is involved in naming, describing, and classifying organisms, both extinct species and extant species International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) - Correct answer The formal rules used by scientists in naming to promote stability and universality in the scientific names of animals and other organisms. Classification - Correct answer One branch of taxonomy where various things are identified and grouped together into groups. This orders and ranks things into a series of hierarchical levels Systematics - Correct answer The field of biology concerned with the identification of the evolutionary relationships among species through time. Phylogeny - Correct answer The pattern and history of evolutionary descent of all of the taxa used in a classification of organisms. Linnaeus - Correct answer Wrote "System nature" in the 18th century where he proposed the idea of binomial nomenclature. Hierarchical Classification Order - Correct answer Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Species Taxon - Correct answer The named taxonomic unit at any level Phylogenetic Tree - Correct answer A chart which shows all living species (on that chart) are descended from a common hypothetical ancestor. Allopatric speciation - Correct answer When populations of the same species become isolated and interfere with genetic variation between them Geographical Isolation - Correct answer When two populations of one species are separated from each other by a physical barrier and the environmental differences cause the two populations to evolve in different ways Sympatric Speciation - Correct answer This occurs when a new species is formed within the range of the parent populations. Clad gram - Correct answer Constructed from a series of dichotomies. The sequence of branching resembles historical chronology of common ancestry Ana genesis (phyletic evolution) - Correct answer The transformation of one entire species over time into another through time. The transformation of an branched lineage of organisms to such an extent that it can be called a new species Clad genesis (Branching evolution or Divergent Evolution) - Correct answer The budding off of one or more new species from a parental species that continues to exist and which may coexist with the 'daughter' species for some time. Branching of a new species from an ancestral lineage occurs. Monophyletic Taxon - Correct answer A clade that consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants. No unrelated species are included, and hopefully no related species has been left out and included somewhere else Polyphyletic Taxon - Correct answer The members are derived from two or more ancestral forms not common to all members. Some descendant species are not included, and the common ancestor has also been left out Paraphyletic Taxon - Correct answer Excludes some species that share a common ancestor with the rest of the species of the group. In other words, some of the descendant species have been left out of the group, but not the common ancestor. Homology - Correct answer A shared ancestry Convergent evolution - Correct answer Process where organisms that are not closely related independently evolve similar traits Analogous Structures - Correct answer Structures that are very different structurally, but they are similar in function Homologous Structures - Correct answer Structures which might have a different function (or a similar function) but the underlying structure, development, and physiology are the same Hoopla’s - Correct answer A term used to refer to the similarity in appearance of two groups due to independent evolutionary change. Evolutionary Reversal - Correct answer A loss of an advanced trait and thus the organism reverts back to using a primitive trait Willis Henning - Correct answer Helped to develop cladistics Cladistics - Correct answer The systematic methodology that sought to emphasize objectiveness and reproducibility (in order to minimize the subjectivity of individual taxonomists) and be consistent with what scientists would refer to as "true" evolutionary patterns Flagellant - Correct answer The protein in prokaryotic flagellum Microtubules - Correct answer What is found in eukaryotic flagella. Made of the protein tubulin. Nucleoid Region - Correct answer Where the DNA is concentrated in prokaryotes. This DNA is in the form sofa a ring Plasmids - Correct answer The smaller rings of DNA that usually contain one gene or a few genes in prokaryotes. These replicate independently of the chromosome and can be transferred between partners during conjugation. The can carry a variety of genes, including some involved in antibiotic resistance and metabolism of certain materials. Binary Fission - Correct answer The asexual process that prokaryotes use to reproduce Lateral Gene Transfer - Correct answer The transfer of genes between different species Transformation - Correct answer The bacterial cell absorbs and integrates fragments of DNA from their environment. This allows considerable genetic transfer between prokaryotes, even across species lines. Conjugation - Correct answer One cell directly transfers genes to another cell via plasmids Transduction - Correct answer Viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes Mutation - Correct answer The major source of genetic variation in prokaryotes. Photographs - Correct answer Prokaryotes which use light energy Chemotropism - Correct answer Prokaryotes that obtain energy from chemicals in their environment Autotrophs - Correct answer Prokaryotes that need only carbon dioxide as a carbon source Heterotrophs - Correct answer Prokaryotes that require at least one organic nutrient as a carbon source Photoautotroph - Correct answer Uses light as energy source and carbon dioxide as carbon source. Ex: Certain prokaryotes (cyanobacteria), plants, some protests (algae) Chemoautotroph - Correct answer Uses inorganic chemicals (hydrogen sulfide, etc.) as energy source, uses carbon dioxide as carbon source. Ex: Certain prokaryotes Photo heterotroph - Correct answer Uses light as energy source and uses organic compounds (sugars, etc.) as carbon source. Ex: Certain prokaryotes Chemoheterotrophic - Correct answer Uses organic compounds (sugars, etc.) as energy source and uses organic compounds (sugars, etc.) as carbon source. Ex: many prokaryotes, many protests, all fungi, all animals, and some plants Obligate Aerobes - Correct answer Require oxygen for cellular respiration (aerobic respiration) Facultative anaerobes - Correct answer Will use oxygen if present but can also grow by fermentation in an anaerobic environment. Obligate anaerobes - Correct answer Are poisoned by oxygen and use either fermentation or anaerobic respiration. In anaerobic respiration, inorganic molecules other than oxygen accept electrons from electron transport chains. Proteobacteria - Correct answer A large, diverse, broad group of Gram-Negative bacteria. Many nitrogen fixing bacteria and autotrophic bacteria are in this group. The putative ancestor to mitochondria is thought to have come from this group. E. coli is in this group. Chlamydias - Correct answer Small intracellular parasites. Gram-Negative bacteria, some cause STDs (one causes syphilis). They move by modified flagella (called axial filaments) running beneath the outer membrane. Gram-Positive Bacteria - Correct answer A very large, diverse group. Most are Gram- Positive (a few are Gram-Negative). Many are soil bacteria, but many pathogens are in this group. Includes mycolplasmas (the smallest known cells). Some species produce endospores (which act as resting stages that can resist harsh environmental conditions). Some of these bacteria produce important antibiotics. Mycoplasmas - Correct answer The smallest known cells Endospores - Correct answer Act as resting stages that can resist harsh environmental conditions Cyanobacteria - Correct answer Often commonly called the blue-green bacteria. They carry out photosynthesis similar to plants (produces oxygen)- the photoautotrophs. Eukaryotic chloroplasts likely came from an ancestor in this domain. Some species are important nitrogen fixers. Heterocyst’s - Correct answer Help bacteria which contain them to fix atmospheric nitrogen levels Achaea - Correct answer Possess unique long-chain branched hydrocarbons with glycerol’s on both ends; they span across the cell membrane. These organisms live in extreme environments; some scientists study them because they can tell us what environments alien microbes may be able to tolerate. Some species live in hot environments and others live in acidic environments. Some live in both hot and acidic environments. Other species are methanogens that live in cow intestines and hydrothermal vents. Some of these species are halophiles living in very salty environments. Thermophile - Correct answer Achaea that enjoy living in hot environments Acidophilic - Correct answer Achaea that enjoy living in acidic environments Methanogens - Correct answer Achaea that enjoy living in methane filled environments Halophiles - Correct answer Achaea that enjoy living in salty environments Mixotrophs - Correct answer Protests which combine photosynthesis with heterotrophic modes of nutrition. In the dark they become heterotrophic Protozoa - Correct answer The heterotrophic, animal-like protests (ciliates, flagellates, etc.) Molds - Correct answer The absorptive, fungus-like protests (water molds and slime molds) Algae - Correct answer The photosynthetic, plant-like protests (red algae, green algae, etc.) Super group Excavate - Correct answer Most members of this group have an 'excavated groove' on the side of the body. Diplomonadida - Correct answer Part of super group excavate. They have highly reduced and modified mitochondria, called mitoses. These organisms cannot use aerobic respiration; they use anaerobic respiration instead. Some can cause dysentery in humans and other animals. They typically have two haploid nuclei and a total of eight anterior flagella. Parabasalids - Correct answer Part of super group excavate. They have reduced nonfunctional mitochondria called hydrogenosomes; they use anaerobic respiration and release hydrogen as a byproduct. They have clusters of flagellate at the anterior end that are associated with protein fibers also associated with specialized Golgi bodies (parabasal bodies). A long microtubule complex called the apostle is present; it appears to be involved in locomotion and support. pseudopodia. Most are heterotrophs, but some are autotrophic. For these species, their photosynthetic machinery may have evolved from a different group of cyanobacteria than the plant plastids. Supergroup Archaeaplastida - Correct answer This supergroup was also proposed due to DNA evidence. They are all thought to be descended from a common ancestor that engulfed a cyanobacteria. This group contains all higher multicellular plants (Plantae), along with red algae and green algae. Rhodophyta - Correct answer This part of the Supergroup Archaeaplastida. They are the red algae: marine organisms that have no flagella in their life cycle (unlike the brown algae). They use a unique form of starch (Floridian starch) for storage. Like the brown algae, the red algae are also multicellular. They have large amounts of a reddish pigment phycoerythrin; they appear to be greenish, reddish or black, depending on the amount of pigment present. Chlorophyta - Correct answer This is part of the Supergroup Archaeaplastida. They are the green algae ("green-plant") which are closely related to plants (the green algae and plants are thought share a common ancestor). The green algae share chlorophylls and chloroplasts in common with the land plants, as well sharing several other attributes. They are either unicellular or multicellular. Plantae (the higher plants) - Correct answer Part of the Supergroup Archaeaplastida. We'll cover them later. A number of systematics include plants in the green algae. Supergroup Unknot - Correct answer This supergroup contains the animals and fungi (as well as protests that are closely related to either animals or fungi), and various amoebae. Opisthokonts - Correct answer Part of the Unknot Supergroup. these organisms (fungi, animals and some protests) share a single posterior flagellum in their motile cells and they all have similarities in mitochondrial morphology. In addition, genetic evidence suggests they are a monophyletic group. choanoflagellates - Correct answer Part of the Opisthokonts in the Unikonta Supergroup. we'll cover them later. They are considered the sister group to animals The animals (Animal) - Correct answer Part of the Opisthokonts in the Unikonta Supergroup. We'll cover them later. Nucleoids - Correct answer Part of the Opisthokonts in the Unikonta Supergroup. A small group of amoeboid organisms. They are considered a sister group to the fungi. Fungi - Correct answer Part of the Opisthokonts in the Unikonta Supergroup. We'll cover them later. Amoebozoans - Correct answer Part of the Unikonta Supergroup. They use large lobe- shaped pseudopodia (specifically, large lobe-shaped lobopodia) for movement, and they are found in many habitats. This group contains the slime molds, the gym amoebas, and the endamebas. Many amoebae are free-living, but some are parasitic on a variety of organisms (example, Endameba histolytic). The amoebae surround their prey using several pseudopodia, forming a food vacuole via the process of phagocytosis. Mycetozoa - Correct answer Part of the Amoebozoans in the Unikonta Supergroup. They include the slime molds (plasmodial and cellular slime molds). Like the water molds, these organisms also share analogies with the fungi: heterotrophic, absorb food via saprobism. At one stage in their life 17 cycle, slime molds consist of solitary or colonial amebas Plasmodial Slime Molds - Correct answer In the Mycetozoa group of the Amoebozoans in the Unikonta Supergroup. They have a large amoeboid mass (the plasmodium). The plasmodium consists of a large 'supercell' that is multinucleated (many nuclei produced by mitosis, but each mitotic division is not followed by cytokinesis, When food supplies run low, a sporangium forms and haploid spores are produced by meiosis. These spores hatch into amoeboid or flagellated cells that fuse to form a zygote, which produces the plasmodium cellular slime molds - Correct answer In the Mycetozoa group of the Amoebozoans in the Unikonta Supergroup. They are similar to plasmodial slime molds: individual amebas can come together to form a mass similar to a plasmodium, except that the cells do not 'fuse' together; they remain separate. The plasmodium is a multicellular structure, not a multinucleated structure seen in the plasmodial slime molds. The colony forms a slug-like mass that can travel some distance, settling and producing a fruiting body in which spores are produce asexually (without meiosis). The spores excyst into small amebas. Haploid amebas can fuse (syngamy) forming a zygote in a cyst, in which meiosis occurs and haploid amoebas hatch from the cyst. gymnamoebas - Correct answer In the Amoebozoans in the Unikonta Supergroup. They are a large group of 'naked' amebas in soil and water. endamebas - Correct answer In the Amoebozoans in the Unikonta Supergroup. include amoebas that are either free-living, but a few are highly pathogenic parasites (such as Endameba histolytic, which causes dysentery). Eukaryotic Cell vs. Prokaryotic Cell - Correct answer 1)Prokaryotes cell size is smaller than Eukaryote cell size, 2)Prokaryotes have DNA with no histone protein, simple circular DNA molecule, DNA not within a nuclear envelope, plasmids present, Eukaryotes have DNA in several chromosomes, more genes than in bacteria, histone and no histone proteins, DNA within the nuclear envelope, no plasmids, 3)Prokaryotes have binary fission, no mitosis, Eukaryotes have Mitosis 4) Prokaryotes have no sex (they can exchange genes via plasmids), Eukaryotes have males and females that produce gametes from meiosis, gametes fuse to form a zygote 5) Prokaryotes have no mitochondria or chloroplasts, metabolism in cytoplasm, Eukaryotes have mitochondria and chloroplasts, metabolism occurs in these organelles and in the cytoplasm 6) Prokaryotes have no intracellular movement, Eukaryotes have cytoplasmic streaming, phagocytosis, mitotic movements of chromosomes, all due to cytoskeleton of various protein filaments 7)Prokaryotes have no '9 pairs plus 2' pattern of microtubules, the cell wall composed of disaccharide polymers linked to peptide chains, Eukaryotes have '9 pairs + 2' pattern, the cell wall (if present) does not have disaccharide polymers linked to peptides Protest Locomotion - Correct answer Most protests move with flagella or cilia during some time in their life cycles. These flagella are 18 structurally and functionally different from bacterial flagella. There is a 9 pairs + 2 arrangement of microtubules. Cilia are shorter, more numerous, have a distinct power stroke and recovery stroke. Eukaryotic flagella are usually less numerous, whip back and forth usually, pulling or pushing the cell along. holozoic (photographs) - Correct answer Protests that consume whole organisms for nutrition. Binary Fission - Correct answer the main method of asexual reproduction, where the organisms undergo mitosis and cytokinesis, forming two daughter cells schizogony (Multiple Fission) - Correct answer many daughter cells are formed during binary fission Sporogony - Correct answer the process where multiple fission is preceded by the fusion of gametes, seen in some Apicomplexans isogamy (isogametes) - Correct answer protests form small gametes that fuse together to restore the diploid condition. If the gametes are all alike and the same size an isogamy - Correct answer protests form small gametes that fuse together to restore the diploid condition. If they are of two different sizes of gametes form marine bryophytes. Bryophytes for the most part lack vascular tissues that transport water and nutrients throughout the body. The bryophytes are thus called the nonvascular plants. The gametophyte is the dominant generation in the life cycles of bryophytes. In bryophytes, gametophytes are the most conspicuous, dominant phase of the life cycle. Bryophyte sporophytes are smaller and are present only part of the time. Most bryophytes lack xylem tissues to distribute water and organic compounds within the gametophyte. The gametophytes of many bryophytes are 'leafy. The 'stem'-like central stalk of the moss gametophyte is called the caladium, with whorls of 'leaf'-like phyllidia (phylidium, singular). Pterophytes (the ferns and their relatives) - Correct answer Vascular plants (lycophytes, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms) are thought to have evolved roughly 400 million years ago from moss-like ancestors. Ferns first appeared in the Devonian (The Mesozoic era) and have radiated extensively since then; there are over 12,000 species today. The primitive seedless vascular plants formed vast "coal forests" during the Carboniferous period, about 290-360 million years ago, these fossils formed what we call coal deposits in the rocks today. The other major groups of land plants evolved vascular tissue and are known as the vascular plants. Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are composed of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body. Ferns and other pteridophytes are sometimes called seedless plants, because there is no seed stage in their life cycles. Seedless vascular plants consists of two modern clades (groups): a) Lycophytes - the lycophytes or club mosses; and the b) Pterophytes - the ferns, whisk ferns, and horsetails. We will concentrate on the ferns. Gymnosperms - Correct answer The four phyla of extant gymnosperms are the gingko, cycads, geophytes, and conifers. We will concentrate on the conifers as our example of gymnosperms. The conifers (Phylum Coniferophyta) is the largest living gymnosperm phylum. The term 'conifer' comes from the reproductive structure, called the cone, which consists of a cluster of scale like specialized leaves called sporophylls. The ovules and seeds of gymnosperms ("naked seeds") develop on the surfaces of sporophylls. In contrast, ovules and seeds of angiosperms develop in enclosed chambers called ovaries. Most conifers are evergreen, retaining their leaves and photosynthesizing throughout the year. However, some conifers are deciduous, dropping their leaves in autumn. Angiosperms - Correct answer Angiosperms (the flowering plants) are vascular seed plants that produce flowers and fruits. They are by far the most diverse and geographically widespread of all plants. There are about 250,000 known species of angiosperms. Refinements in vascular tissue, especially xylem, probably played a role in the enormous success of angiosperms in diverse terrestrial habitats. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms have long, tapered tracheids that function for support and water transport. Angiosperms also have fiber cells, specialized for support, and vessel elements (in most angiosperms) that develop into xylem vessels for efficient water transport. Complete flowers - Correct answer They s have all four flower parts (sepals, petals, stamens and carpels). Incomplete flowers - Correct answer They are missing one or more of the four parts. Most grasses lack petals, for example. perfect flower (or bisexual flower) - Correct answer It has both stamens and carpels. imperfect flower (or unisexual flower) - Correct answer It is missing either stamens or carpels (and thus they are incomplete flowers as well). The flowers that have stamens (and produce pollen) but are missing carpels are called staminate flowers, the flowers with carpels (and lacking stamens) are called carpel late flowers. monoecism - Correct answer If an individual plant produces both staminate and carpel late flowers, the plant species is called dioeciously - Correct answer If one individual plant only produces one type of flower (either staminate or carpel late), the species is embryo sacs - Correct answer The female gametophytes are egg-producing structures called Pollination - Correct answer This begins the process by which the male and female gametophytes are brought together so that their gametes can unite pollen tube - Correct answer This grows down into the ovary via the style and discharges two sperm into the embryo sac, fertilizing the egg self-incompatibility - Correct answer the ability of plant to reject its own pollen and that of closely related individuals