BIOS 251 Final Exam Study Guide ( Version 2)/ BIOS251 Final Exam (Latest 2022/2023), Study Guides, Projects, Research of Nursing

Download BIOS 251 Final Exam Study Guide ( Version 2)/ BIOS251 Final Exam (Latest 2022/2023) and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! 1 BIOS 251 A&P 1 Final Study Guide *Spend extra time on the concepts that are in bold* Don’t forget to study the list of bones and bone features on the Lab Practicum Study Guide! Ch. 1 Homeostasis • Condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment, and maintained by regulatory processes. • Survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid • Internal conditions are in a dynamic equilibrium; set point (like thermostat in house) • Essential for maintenance of life; death and disease. Components of the homeostatic control loop (feedback loops) • Negative Feedback: works to oppose change and brings condition back to a set point o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (blood pressure) > Receptors (baroreceptors in certain blood vessels) > Control Center (brain) > Effectors (heart & blood vessels) > Response (decrease in HR) • Positive Feedback: works to enhance change and brings condition further away from a set point (ex. Birth) o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (stretching of cervix) > Receptors (stretching of cells in cervix) > Control Center (brain) > Effectors (muscles in wall of uterus) > Response (baby’s body stretches the cervix more) Ch. 2 Acids and bases • Acids: ionize into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions (negative ions) • Bases: dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations (positive ions) and are proton acceptors. pH scale • Acidity is lower, alkalinity is higher. Scale is 0-14 • 7 is neutral • Gastric fluid, hydrochloric acid is 0 and 1 • Over cleaner, sodium hydroxide is 13 and 14 • Blood is just over 7 Ch. 3 Tonicity of solutions and their effect on body cells (hypo-, iso-, hypertonic) • Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells. • Isotonic solution = RBC maintain normal shape • Hypotonic solution = RBC hemolyze • Hypertonic solution = RBC crenate 2 Osmosis • Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration. Factors that influence the rate of diffusion across the cell membrane • steepness of the concentration gradient • temperature • mass of diffusing substance • surface area • diffusion distance Where DNA may be found in the cell • Nucleus • Sometimes in the mitochondria Where DNA replication occurs in the cell • Nucleus Stages of the cell cycle and events at each stage • Interphase (longest phase) o G1 § Cell is metabolically active, duplicating organelles, and cytosolic components except for DNA. 8-10 hours. o S § DNA replicated. 8 hours o G2. 4-6 hours. § Cell growth continues and the cell completes its preparation for cell division • Mitosis – nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes, one set into each of two separate nuclei o PMAT Stages of mitosis and events at each stage • Prophase: chromatin condenses and shortens into chromosomes • Metaphase: centromeres line up at the exact center of mitotic spindle, aka metaphase plate or equatorial plane region • Anaphase: the splitting and separation of centromeres and the movement of the two sister chromatids of each pair toward opposite poles of the cell • Telophase: begins as soon as chromatid movement stops. Identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell uncoil and revert to their threadlike chromatin form, microtubules disappear or change form, a new nuclear envelope forms, new nucleoli appear, and the new mitotic spindle eventually breaks. Ch. 4 5 Strata/layers of the epidermis and functions (recognize in pictures/histology slides) • Stratum basale / stratum gerinativum: mitotically active, attached to basal lamina. Deepest layer. • Stratum Spinosum (spiny layer): cells arranged in 8 to 10 layers with desomosomes that pull cells into spiny shapes. Strength and flexibility to the skin. • Stratum granulosum (granular layer) : cells arranged in two to four layers and filled with keratohyalin granules for dehydration and cross linking of keratin • Stratum Lucidum (clear layer): cells filled with keratin, absent in thin skin [only present in thick skin] [only in fingers, palms, soles] • Stratum Corneum (horny later): most superficial layer; dead cells filled with keratin • Cell types of the epidermis • Keratinocytes: produce keratin, helps protect the skin and underlying tissue from heat, microbes, and chemicals, and lamellar granules, which release a waterproof sealant. • Melanocytes: produce the pigment melanin which contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging UV light • Intraepidermal Macrophages or Langerhans: cells participate in immune response • Tactile epithelial cells or Merkel cells: contact a sensory structure called a tactile (Merkel) disc and function in the sensation of touch. Melanocyte and melanin function • Melanocyte – produce the pigment melanin which contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging UV light. Synthesize melanin from amino acid tyrosine in the presence of an enzyme called tyrosinase. • Melanin – causes skins color to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to black o Pheomelanin (yellow to red) o Eumelanin (brown to black) Thick vs thin skin • Thick skin – covers the palms, palmer surfaces of the digits, and soles 6 o Features a stratum lucidum and thick epidermal ridges o Lacks hair follicles, arrector pili muscles, and sebaceous glands, and has more sweat glands than thin skin • Thin skin – covers all parts of the body except for the palms, palmar surface of the digits, and soles o Lacks epidermal ridges o Has a sparser distribution of sensory receptors than thick skin Keratin • Helps protect the skin and underlying tissue from heat, microbes, and chemicals, and lamellar granules, which release a waterproof sealant. ABCDE’s of skin cancer • A – Asymmetry • B – Border (eneven) • C – Color (variety) • D – Diameter (> ¼ “) • E – Evolving (changes over time) Types of skin cancer • Basal cell carcinoma (common) • Squamous cell carcinoma • Malignant melanoma (most dangerous) Ch. 6 Functions of the skeletal system • Provides support • Protects the internal organs (brains, heart, etc) • Assists body movements (in conjunction with muscles) • Stores and releases salts of calcium and phosphorus • Participates in blood cell production (hemopoiesis) • Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow Microscopic structure of compact and spongy bone • Compact bone: located where bones are heavily stressed; unidirectional • Spongy bone: located where bones are not heavily stressed; multidirectional o Reduces the weight of the bone o Provides framework for bone marrow Cells of bone tissue and their functions • Osteogenic cells: undergo cell division and develop into osteoblasts • Osteoblasts: bone building cells, promoting bone deposition • Osteocytes: mature bone cells (derived from osteoblasts) that maintain bone tissue. 7 • Osteoclasts: derived from monocytes and serve to break down, or resorb, bone tissue. Parts of a typical long bone • Diaphysis (bone shaft) • 2 epiphyses (both ends of the bone at the joints) • 2 metaphyses (region between diaphysis and epiphysis) • Articular cartilage covering both epiphyses • Periosteum (connective tissue surrounding the diaphysis) • Medullary cavity (hollow space within diaphysis) • Endosteum (thin membrane lining the medullary cavity) Hormones affecting bone remodeling • Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), which are stimulated by human growth hormone (hGH) • Thyroid hormones and insulin are also necessary. • Sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) at puberty stimulates sudden growth. • Hormonal abnormalities can affect growth in height. Calcium homeostasis in bone (hormones!) • Store 99% of body’s calcium • Parathyroid gland secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH) when Ca levels drop • Osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resportion and calcium is released • PTH also stimulates the production of calcitriol by the kidneys to increase calcium absorption in the intestines. • Calcitonin made by the thyroid works to reduce calcium blood levels Main minerals found in bone matrix • Calcium and phosphorus Ch. 7 Types of ribs • True Ribs (pairs 1-7) – cartilage is directly connected to the sternum • Falso Ribs (pairs 8-12) – cartilage indirectly connected to sternum o Floating Ribs (pairs 11 and 12) – not connected at all Types of bones (shapes) and examples of each • Long: greater seed length than width – humerus • Short: cube shaped – trapezoid, wrist bones • Flat: thin layers of parallel plates – sternum • Irregular : complex shapes – vertebraes • Sesamoid: shaped like a seasame seed - patella Abnormal curvatures of the vertebral column • Scoliosis : increased lateral curve (S curve) 10 Joints between clavicle, sternum and scapula • Clavicle articulates with the manubrium of the sternum, and the lateral end articulates with the acromion of the scapula. Metacarpal bones (base, shaft, head) • I, II, III, IV, V (V being pinky) • Base is towards wrist, shaft is middle, head is towards end of finger) Ch. 9 All types of movements synovial joints can produce (we practiced in class!) • Abduction: movement of bone away from the midline • Adduction: movement of bone toward the midline • Circumduction: circular movement • Flexion: decrease in angle between articulating bones • Extension: increase in angle between articulating bones • Hyperextension: continuation of extension beyond the anatomical position • Rotation: bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis • Medial Rotation: bone turns towards the midline (arm bent, moving towards stomach) • Lateral Roation: bone turns away from midline (arm bent, moving away from stomach) • Elevation: upward movement of body part (closing mouth) • Depression: downward movement of body part (opening mouth) • Protraction: movement anteriorly in the transverse plane (jaw moving away) • Retraction: movement back to anatomical position (putting jaw back) • Inversion: soles move medially (rolling an ankle) • Eversion: soles move laterally (rolling an ankle the not normal way) • Dorsiflexion: bending the foot at the ankle, superior surface (pointing up) • Plantar flexion: bending the foot at the ankle, plantar surface (pointing towards ground) • Supination: movement of the forearm where palm is turned anteriorly or inferiorly. (palm up) • Pronation: movement of the forearm where palm is turned posteriorly or inferiorly. (palm down) • Opposition: move thumb to pinky. Definition and examples of each type of structural joint: Fibrous joints • Sutures: dense fibrous connective tissue • Syndesmoses: more dense connective tissue than a suture o Gomphosis (teeth) • Interosseous Membranes: a broad sheet of dense fibrous connective tissue Cartilaginous joints • Synchondrosis: hyaline cartilage; no movement o Ex. Epiphyseal plate 11 • Symphysis: fibrocartilage; some movement o Ex. Pubic symphysis Synovial joint structures and characteristics • Articular artilage on ends of long bones and a synovial cavity between articulating bones surrounded by accessory ligaments; freely moveable o Ex. Hip, Knee, Shoulder, Elbow Functions of synovial fluid • Secreted by the synovial membrane, lubricates, and reduces friction in the joint and supplies nutrients to and removes metabolic wastes from the joint. Functional classification of joints (amphi-, syn- and diarthroses) and examples of where you can find them in the body • Synarthroses: allow NO movement o Ex. Suture, gomphosis • Amiphiarthroses: allow LITTLE movement o Ex. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs • Diarthroses: FREELY moveable; synovial o Ex. Hip, Knee, Shoulder, Elbow Functional vs. structural joint classification • Functional: What degree of movement is permitted? • Structural: Is there a joint cavity? What type of connective tissue is involved? Structure of the knee joint and the function of ALL the major structures • Largest and most complex joint of the body, consisting of three joints within a single synovial cavity o Modified hinge joint. • Movements include flexion, extension, slight medial rotation, and lateral rotation of the leg in a flexed position. Types of cartilaginous joints • Synchrondosis: connecting material is hyaline cartilage, allowing NO movement • Symphysis: connecting material is a disc of fibrocartilage, allow SOME movement. (intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis) • Epiphyseal Cartilage: hyaline cartilage localized in growth centers during endochondral bone formation.