Understanding Persuasive Communication: Logos, Ethos, and Pathos - Prof. Martha Pennington, Study notes of Political Science

Download Understanding Persuasive Communication: Logos, Ethos, and Pathos - Prof. Martha Pennington and more Study notes Political Science in PDF only on Docsity! LING/POLS 3337 Language, Power and Politics Sp 11 Week 4.2 Professor Martha C. Pennington Building a Persuasive Case – Key Concepts Logos (Greek “word”) the quality of the message, its logical appeal, showing the author’s knowledge Ethos (Greek “character”) the author’s character and credibility projected in the message, its moral or ethical appeal Pathos (Greek “suffering” or “experience”) the values and feelings projected in the message, its emotional appeal “Politics is quintessentially a linguistic activity, an activity in which language is employed to inform others about political issues and persuade them to adopt courses of action in regard to these issues” (Geis, 1987, p. 18). Skilled politicians know how to use many different devices for gaining attention, votes, and power, including logos, ethos, pathos, humor, stories, and cultural information and beliefs that the audience shares. 3 Keys to Making a Speech to Inspire and Transform - Key Concepts 1. Express a grand vision. Set the stage Create a memorable message (logos) Express hope and idealism 2. Bring others into your vision. Appeal to noble motives (ethos) Uplift the audience Show them the way 3. Communicate your total commitment to the vision. Show passion (pathos) Dramatize Use whole body communication Building a Persuasive Case In Writing Arguments, three types of persuasive appeals are described as the points on a “rhetorical triangle”:  Logos (Greek for “word”) focuses attention on the quality of the message—that is, on the internal consistency and clarity of the argument itself and on the logic of its reasons and support. The impact of logos on an audience is referred to as its logical appeal.  Ethos (Greek for “character”) focuses attention on the writer’s (or speaker’s) character as it is projected in the messages. It refers to the credibility of the writer. Ethos is often conveyed through the tone and style of the message, through the care with which the writer considers alternative views, and through the writer’s investment in his or her claim. In some cases, it’s also a function of the writer’s reputation for honesty and expertise independent of the message. The impact of ethos on an audience is referred to as its ethical appeal or appeal from credibility.  Pathos (Greek for “suffering” or “experience”) focuses attention on the values and beliefs of the intended audience. It is often associated with emotional appeal. But pathos appeals more specifically to an audience’s imaginative sympathies—their capacity to feel and see what the writer feels and sees. Thus, when we turn the abstractions of logical discourse into a tangible and immediate story, we are making a pathetic appeal. Whereas appeals to logos and ethos can further an audience’s intellectual assent to our claim, appeals to pathos engage the imagination and feelings, moving the audience to a deeper appreciation of the argument’s significance. (Ramage, Bean, and Johnson, 2010, pp. 62-63) In simple terms, these are three different ways to focus communication, by using (1) your knowledge (logos), (2) your morality or authority (ethos), or (3) your feelings or emotions (pathos), or a combination of these to influence people. We often think that people are persuaded in a rational way, mainly by facts and logic (logos). In fact, human nature dictates that we are often much more easily persuaded by ethos and pathos than by logos. While a person’s words and logic, i.e., their logos, are important for establishing their credibility, 1 LING/POLS 3337 Language, Power and Politics Sp 11 Week 4.2 Professor Martha C. Pennington or ethos, this is in part established by their natural and acquired characteristics, including their size, gender, race, and age as well as their job and position. Pathos is the component of “relatability” that can be created or demonstrated by showing a human connection, such as through referring to experience that is held in common with the audience or through telling a story that is entertaining or moving, that highlights a familiar theme or moral, or that in some other way establishes connection or empathy between speaker and audience. Humor can be used in this way as can a narration of a true event or an imaginative or symbolic story. In their efforts to persuade an audience, speakers and writers may invoke known themes, stories, or myths either directly or indirectly. “Politics is quintessentially a linguistic activity, an activity in which language is employed to inform others about political issues and persuade them to adopt courses of action in regard to these issues” (Geis, 1987, p. 18). Skilled politicians know how to use many different devices for gaining attention, votes, and power, including logos, ethos, and pathos conveyed through humor, stories, and cultural information and beliefs that the audience shares. 3 Keys to Making a Speech to Inspire and Transform 1. Express a grand vision.  Set the stage  Create a memorable message (logos)  Express hope and idealism 2. Bring others into your vision.  Appeal to noble motives (ethos)  Uplift the audience  Show them the way 3. Communicate your total commitment to the vision.  Show passion (pathos)  Dramatize  Use whole body communication To give a bit more detail to each of these components: 1. Express a grand vision.  Set the stage  Suggest the theme  Bring in the current context  Give necessary indexical information (place, time, people)  Create a memorable message  Express the vision through unusual and enjoyable language  Create images through evocative language and visually  Use a moving story to drive home your vision  Create hope and idealism  Go beyond the here and now  Create a sense of “infinite possibility”  Create a sense of moving forward 2. Bring others into your vision.  Appeal to noble motives  Altruism  Charity  Love  Uplift the audience  Give hope  Get them to dream  Make them want to do great things  Show them the way  Give them something to reach for  Map a course  Lead them to action 3. Communicate your total commitment to the vision. 2 LING/POLS 3337 Language, Power and Politics Sp 11 Week 4.2 Professor Martha C. Pennington Patrick Henry was elected to be a member of the First Continental Congress in 1774. The “Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death” speech that he is so famous for was given in St. John’s Church, Richmond, Virginia, on March 23, 1775. Henry was known as a fiery speaker, and on this occasion as others, his goal was to urge the Congress to military action against the British. Unlike, for example, Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, there is no surviving copy of this speech written down, though there is an account of it was written by one of the members of the audience, and it is not known whether it was given from a written text, from memory, or a spontaneous declaration of feelings. The version that has been passed down to us (Wirt, 1818), is a reconstructed and apparently edited and “cleaned up” version (Hemple, 1977; Raphael, 2004) written by an admiring biographer, William Wirt, based on oral testimony. According to Wirt, the speech so moved the assembled crowd that they rose to their feet and should, “To arms! To arms!” The speech is quite an erudite one, showing a great command of language and suggesting Henry’s education. It builds a strong case first through use of intelligent and logical argument—the logos of the speech. His language is relatively formal, thus showing traditional distance-politeness, and he also makes use of both deference and camaraderie in establishing the right relationship and tone with his audience—the ethos of the speech, which is also communicated through references to shared culture and noble motives. A third aspect of the speech that makes it effective is its strong passion—its pathos. Henry uses a great deal of dramatic, evocative and aesthetic language such as metaphors and repeated thematic words, as well as rhetorical devices such as overstatement, often framed with negation for dramatic effect, and questions to the audience, many of them rhetorical (i.e., which presuppose their answer). The use of these devices is shown below in an annotation of the first part of the speech. The speech is certainly inspirational, with a cumulative effect which comes across especially in performing or reading it aloud, building to a crescendo at the end by a series of exclamations and questions, the last of which is a rhetorical question followed by an emotional answer to that question: Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, Give me Liberty or give me Death! No man thinks more highly than I do [drama-overstatement, negative generalization] of the patriotism [noble motives], as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen [deferential politeness] who have just addressed the House. But different men often see the same subject in different lights; and, therefore, I hope it will not be thought disrespectful to those gentlemen if, entertaining as I do opinions of a character very opposite to theirs, I shall speak forth my sentiments freely and without reserve [camaraderie]. This is no time for ceremony. The questing before the House is one of awful moment to this country [bringing in the current context]. For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than [drama-overstatement, negative generalization] a question of freedom or slavery [juxtaposition of highly evocative words]; and in proportion to the magnitude of the subject [drama] ought to be the freedom [aesthetic language-repeated word] of the debate. It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at truth, and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to God and our country [invocation of common culture, noble motives]. Should I keep back my opinions at such a time, through fear of giving offense, I should consider myself as guilty of treason towards my country, and of an act of disloyalty toward the Majesty of Heaven, which I revere above all earthly kings [invocation of noble motives, aesthetic language-personification, drama and passion]. Mr. President, it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth, and listen to the song of that siren till she [aesthetic language-alliteration] transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men, engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty? Are we disposed to be of the number of those who, having eyes, see not, and, having ears, hear not, the things which so nearly concern their temporal salvation? [rhetorical questions, drama and passion, invocation of common culture] For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole truth; to know the worst, and to provide for it. [noble motives, drama and passion] I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. [aesthetic language-metaphor; drama] I know of no way of judging of the future but by the past. [drama- overstatement] And judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry for the last ten years to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been 5 LING/POLS 3337 Language, Power and Politics Sp 11 Week 4.2 Professor Martha C. Pennington pleased to solace themselves and the House. Is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received? Trust it not, sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. [aesthetic language- metaphor, repeated word; drama] Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. [aesthetic language-Biblical allusion] John F. Kennedy Inaugural Address http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres56.htm (written text) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLmiOEk59n8 (video) John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address delivered on January 20, 1961, has long been recognized as a great piece of oratory, demonstrating expert use of language to inspire the audience, both in American and around the world, to a vision of its greatness and what could be achieved with him as its leader. Its force lies in part in the way it was delivered, Kennedy’s dramatic style of speaking, emphasizing important words by drawing them out, amplifying his voice, and raising its pitch to imbue them with emotive force and passion. Kennedy, who seemed both comfortable and energized communicating with a crowd both in person and through the lens of a camera, enhanced the impact of his words by looking straight out towards the audience (and the cameras) at the front of the podium and also rotating his head to look out into different sectors of the audience at different moments, with an open yet serious facial expression conveying a combination of hope, authority, and relatability. This speech by Kennedy is also known for its content, its expression of hope and idealism outlining a future full of possibilities. This message had the effect of uplifting the audience, energizing the nation, and moving it in a positive direction, by appealing to common culture and values and noble motives—the ethos of the speech—as captured especially in the memorable line: “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.” This line was in fact so memorable that many people mistakenly think it was the end of the speech. (It was not but perhaps should have been, as what came after it is hardly remembered.) As a very well-educated (Harvard) man, Kennedy could deliver a powerful message through his form of expression, using language in many skillful ways to make the audience think and feel, and to persuade them to get behind him and his goals as leader. One way he drew in the audience was by frequent use of the audience-inclusive pronoun we emphasizing camaraderie. Another way that he gained their positive regard was by several references to God, allusion to Biblical stories, and use of Biblical language. He also created a memorable and moving speech through many different types of aesthetic uses of language, such as the following (see excerpt below for examples): Alliteration: use of same sound in words in sequence Antithesis: contrast of opposite ideas often using but Overstatement: exaggeration Parallelism: use of same grammatical pattern in sequence Repetition: repeated word or phrase Unusual Words: use of rare, old-fashioned, or formal words or word combinations (collocations) Unusual Sentence Structure: reversing the usual order of a sentence or breaking up a sentence These aesthetic uses of language draw attention to the words and increase audience response to them. We [camaraderie] observe today not a victory of party but a celebration of freedom [antithesis], symbolizing an end as well as a beginning, signifying renewal as well as change [parallelism]. For I have sworn before you and Almighty God the same solemn oath our forebears [unusual language] prescribed nearly a century and three-quarters ago. The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands [unusual language] the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life [repetition] And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our [camaraderie] forebears [repetition] fought are still at issue around the globe -- the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God [antithesis]. We [camaraderie] dare not forget [unusual sentence structure] today that we are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth [Biblical language] from this time and place, to friend and foe [alliteration] alike, that the torch has been passed [metaphor] to a new generation of Americans— born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage [parallelism] and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to 6 LING/POLS 3337 Language, Power and Politics Sp 11 Week 4.2 Professor Martha C. Pennington which this nation has always been committed, and to which we [camaraderie] are committed today at home and around the world. Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill [unusual language], that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe [parallelism, overstatement] to assure the survival and the success of liberty. This much we pledge— and more. [unusual sentence structure] To those old allies whose cultural and spiritual origins we share, we pledge the loyalty of faithful friends. United there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. [unusual sentence structure] Divided there is little we can do for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. [unusual sentence structure; Biblical language] To those new states whom we [camaraderie] welcome to the ranks of the free, we [repetition, camaraderie] pledge our [camaraderie] word that one form of colonial control shall not [unusual language] have passed away merely to be replaced by a far more iron tyranny [unusual language]. We [repetition, camaraderie] shall not [repetition] always expect to find them supporting our [camaraderie] view. But we [repetition, camaraderie] shall always [repetition] hope to find them strongly supporting their own freedom—and to remember that, in the past, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger [metaphor] ended up inside. [story reference] References Geis, M. L. (1987). The language of politics. New York: Springer-Verlag. Hemple, J. (1977). The textual and cultural Authenticity of Patrick Henry's 'Liberty or Death' Speech," Quarterly Journal of Speech 63 (1977): 298-310. Ramage, J. D., Bean, J. C., & Johnson, J. (2010). (8th edition.). New York: Longman. Raphael, Ray (2004). Founding Myths: Stories that Hide Our Patriotic Past. New York: The New Press. Wirt, William (1818). Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry. Philadelphia: James Webster. Preview Activity 5.1. Communicating on a Grand Scale (For next Tuesday) a. Watch and read Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech to find examples of his use of aesthetic language and of how he persuades and inspires through logos, ethos, and pathos. http://www.mlkonline.net/video-i-have-a-dream-speech.html b. What and how are “grand themes” of this country (e.g. “America the Beautiful”) used in political rhetoric? Preview Activity 5.2. Packaging a Message (For next Thursday) What are the main points, or key concepts, of George Orwell’s essay, “Politics and the English Language”? http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/orwell46.htm 7