C Programming Question and Answers notes, Exams of Computer Science

Download C Programming Question and Answers notes and more Exams Computer Science in PDF only on Docsity! FUNDAMENTALS OF process database operating system manage server Information Services computer, technologies information Strage phone applications  Data and Database Management System In computing, data is information that has been translated into a form that is efficient for movement or processing. In general, data is any set of characters that has been gathered and translated for some purpose, usually analysis. It can be any character, including text and numbers, pictures, sound, or video. Data processing Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information through a process. Data is technically manipulated to produce results that lead to a resolution of a problem or improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a production process, it follows a cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer systems, software, etc.) to produce output (information and insights). Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable information. Stages of the Data Processing Cycle: 1) Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the quality of data collected will impact heavily on the output. The collection process needs to ensure that the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so that subsequent decisions based on the findings are valid. This stage provides both the baseline from which to measure, and a target on what to improve. 2) Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further analysis and processing. Raw data cannot be processed and must be checked for accuracy. Preparation is about constructing a data set from one or more data sources to be used for further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that has not been carefully screened for problems can produce highly misleading results that are heavily dependent on the quality of data prepared. 3) Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it can be processed through an application. Data entry is done through the use of a keyboard, scanner, or data entry from an existing source. This time-consuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data need to follow a formal and strict syntax since a great deal of processing power is required to breakdown the complex data at this stage. Due to the costs, many businesses are resorting to outsource this stage. 4) Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of powerful technical manipulations using Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence algorithms to generate an output or interpretation about the data. The process may be made up of multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions, depending on the type of data. There are applications like Anvesh available for processing large volumes of heterogeneous data within very short periods. 5) Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is now transmitted and displayed to the user. Output is presented to users in various report formats like graphical reports, Other than these popular Data processing Techniques there are three more processing techniques which are mentioned below- ONLINE PROCESSING This data processing technique is derived from Automatic data processing. This technique is now known as immediate or irregular access handling. Under this technique, the activity by the framework is prepared at the time of operation/processing. This can be viewed easily with continuous preparing of data sets. This processing method highlights the fast contribution of exchange of data and connects directly with the databases. MULTI PROCESSING This is the most commonly used data processing technique. However, it is used all over the globe where we have the computer- based setups for Data capture and processing. As the name suggests – Multiprocessing is not bound to one single CPU, with this, it has a collection of several CPU’s. As the various set of processing devices are included in this method, therefore the outcome efficiency is very useful. The jobs are broken into frames and then sent to the multiprocessors for processing. The result obtained is expected to be in less time and the output is increased. The additional benefit is every processing unit is independent thus failure of any will not impact the working of other processing units. TIME SHARING This kind of Data processing is entirely based on Time. In this, one unit of processing data is used by several users. Each user is allocated with the set timings on which they need to work on the same CPU/processing Unit. Intervals are divided into segments and thus to users so there is no collapse of timings which makes it as a multi-access system. This processing technique is also widely used and mostly entertained in startups. Database Database refers to a collection of electronic records that could be processed to produce useful information. The data can be accessed, modified, managed, controlled and organized to perform various data-processing operations. Database is a collection of inter-related data which helps in efficient retrieval, insertion and deletion of data from database and organizes the data in the form of tables, views, schemas, reports etc. For Example, university database organizes the data about students, faculty, and admin staff etc. which helps in efficient retrieval, insertion and deletion of data from it. Database Model A database model refers to the logical structure, representation or layout of a database and how the data will be stored, managed and processed within it. It helps in designing a database and serves as blueprint for application developers and database administrators in creating a database. Paradigm Shift from File System to DBMS File System manages data using files in hard disk. Users are allowed to create, delete, and update the files according to their requirement. Let us consider the example of file based University Management System. Data of students is available to their respective Departments, Academics Section, Result Section, Accounts Section, Hostel Office etc. Some of the data is common for all sections like Roll No, Name, Father Name, Address and Phone number of students but some data is available to a particular section only like Hostel allotment number which is a part of hostel office. Let us discuss the issues with this system:  Redundancy of data: Data is said to be redundant if same data is copied at many places. If a student wants to change Phone number, he has to get it updated at various sections. Similarly, old records must be deleted from all sections representing that student.  Inconsistency of Data: Data is said to be inconsistent if multiple copies of same data does not match with each other. If Phone number is different in Accounts Section and Academics Section, it will be inconsistent. Inconsistency may be because of typing errors or not updating all copies of same data.  Difficult Data Access: A user should know the exact location of file to access data, so the process is very cumbersome and tedious. If user wants to search student hostel allotment number of a student from 10000 unsorted students’ records, how difficult it can be.  Unauthorized Access: File System may lead to unauthorized access to data. If a student gets access to file having his marks, he can change it in unauthorized way.  No Concurrent Access: The access of same data by multiple users at same time is known as concurrency. File system does not allow concurrency as data can be accessed by only one user at a time.  No Backup and Recovery: File system does not incorporate any backup and recovery of data if a file is lost or corrupted. Database Management System (DBMS) A database management system (DBMS) is system software for creating and managing databases. A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define, manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database. A DBMS generally manipulates the data itself, the data format, field names, record structure and file structure. It also defines rules to validate and manipulate this data. A DBMS relieves users of framing programs for data maintenance. Some other DBMS examples include: MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, dBASE, FoxPro etc. Types of Database Model 1. Hierarchical Database Model A hierarchical model represents the data in a tree-like structure in which there is a single parent for each record. To maintain order there is a sort field which keeps sibling nodes into a recorded manner. These types of models are designed basically for the early mainframe database management systems, like the Information Management System (IMS) by IBM. This model structure allows the one-to-one and a one-to-many relationship between two/ various types of data. This structure is very helpful in describing many relationships in the real world; table of contents, any nested and sorted information. In hierarchical model, data is organized into tree-like structure with one one-to-many relationship between two different types of data, for example, one department can have many courses, many professors and of course many students. Advantages:  The relationship between various layers is logically simple.  This system provides a tough database security.  Hierarchical database system maintains data independence i.e. if a data is altered in one table; it does not affect the other location.  There is always a parent-child relationship and data integrity is maintained.  For a large volume of data and 1: M relationship, it is very efficient model. In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into entity and its characteristics into attributes. Different entities are related using relationships. E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make it easier for different stakeholders to understand. This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in relational model (explained below). Let's take an example, if we have to design a School Database, then Student will be an entity with attributes name, age, address etc. As Address is generally complex, it can be another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc., and there will be a relationship between them. Relationships can also be of different types. To learn about E-R Diagrams in details, click on the link. Advantages:  It yields a particularly easily viewed and understood conceptual view of database’s main entities and their relationships.  The ERM gives the designers visual representation very clearly.  The ERM has become one of significant effective communication tools in RDBMS.  The ERM is well integrated with the relational database model. Disadvantages:  Limited constraint representation due to limited model.  The relationship between attributes within entities cannot be represented. Example, there is no way of completed hours and classification of a student.  It lacks in data manipulation language or commands.  The models become crowded due to more presence of entities. DBMS was designed to solve the fundamental problems associated with storing, managing, accessing, securing and auditing data in traditional file systems. Traditional database applications were developed on top of the databases, which led to challenges such as data redundancy, isolation, integrity constraints and difficulty in managing data access. A layer of abstraction was required between users or apps and the databases at a physical and logical level. By introducing a technology solution to manage databases in the form of DBMS software, the following key benefits are realized:  Data Security: DBMS allows organizations to enforce policies that enable compliance and security. The databases are available for appropriate users as per organizational policies. The DBMS system is also responsible to maintain optimum performance of querying operations while ensuring the validity, security and consistency of data items updated to a database.  Data Sharing: Fast and efficient collaboration between users.  Data Access and Auditing: Controlled access to databases. Logging associated access activities allows organizations to audit for security and compliance.  Data Integration: Instead of operating island of database resources, a single interface is used to manage databases with logical and physical relationships.  Abstraction and Independence: Organizations can change the physical schema of database systems without necessitating changes to the logical schema that govern database relationships. As a result, organizations can upgrade storage and scale the infrastructure without impacting database operations. Similarly, changes to the logical schema can be applied without altering the apps and services that access the databases.  Uniform Management and Administration: A single console interface to perform basic administrative tasks makes the job easier for database admins and IT users.  Minimized data inconsistency: Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in different places. For example, data inconsistency exists when a company’s sales department stores a sales representative’s name as “Bill Brown” and the company’s personnel department stores that same person’s name as “William G. Brown,” or when the company’s regional sales office shows the price of a product as $45.95 and its national sales office shows the same product’s price as $43.95. The probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly designed database.  Improved data access: The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries. From a database perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS for data manipulation—for example, to read or update the data. Simply put, a query is a question, and an ad hoc query is a spur-of-the-moment question. The DBMS sends back an answer (called the query result set) to the application. For example, end users, when dealing with large amounts of sales data, might want quick answers to questions (ad hoc queries).  Improved decision making: Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate better-quality information, on which better decisions are based. The quality of the information generated depends on the quality of the underlying data. Data quality is a comprehensive approach to promoting the accuracy, validity, and timeliness of the data. While the DBMS does not guarantee data quality, it provides a framework to facilitate data quality initiatives.  Increased end-user productivity: The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable information, empowers end users to make quick, informed decisions that can make the difference between success and failure in the global economy. Disadvantages of Database Management System (DBMS): Although the database system yields considerable advantages over previous data management approaches, database systems do carry significant disadvantages. For example:  Increased costs: One of the disadvantages of DBMS is Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly skilled personnel. The cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and manage a database system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and regulation compliance costs are often overlooked when database systems are implemented.  Management complexity: Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a significant impact on a company’s resources and culture. The changes introduced by the adoption of a database system must be properly managed to ensure that they help advance the company’s objectives. Given the fact that database systems hold crucial company data that are accessed from multiple sources, security issues must be assessed constantly.  Maintaining currency: To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your system current. Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches and security measures to all components. Because database technology advances rapidly, personnel training costs tend to be significant. Vendor dependence. Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training, companies might be reluctant to change database vendors. As a consequence, vendors are less likely to offer pricing point advantages to existing customers, and those customers might be limited in their choice of database system components.  Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles: DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality. Such new features often come bundled in new upgrade versions of the software. Some of these versions require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades themselves cost money, but it also costs money to train database users and administrators to properly use and manage the new features.  Cost of Hardware and Software of a DBMS is quite high which increases the budget of your organization.  Most database management systems are often complex systems, so the training for users to use the DBMS is required.  In some organizations, all data is integrated into a single database which can be damaged because of electric failure or database is corrupted on the storage media  Use of the same program at a time by many users sometimes leads to the loss of some data.  DBMS can't perform sophisticated calculations Structured Query Language SQL fully abbreviated as Structured Query Language can be defined as a domain-specific language used to manage the relational databases and performs different operations on the data stored in them. SQL is used as their standard database language by all the relational database management systems like Oracle, Informix, SQL server, MySQL, MS Access, and Sybase. Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard computer language for relational database management and data manipulation. SQL is used to query, insert, update and modify data. The language was first created by IBM in 1975 and was called SEQUEL for "Structured English Query Language." Since then, it has undergone a number of changes, many coming from Oracle products. Hence, the application layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-user and the database.  User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about any existence of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be provided by the application. All views are generated by applications that reside in the application tier. Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost all its components are independent and can be changed independently. Internet and Intranet Internet The internet is a globally connected network system that uses TCP/IP to transmit data via various types of media. The internet is a network of global exchanges – including private, public, business, academic and government networks – connected by guided, wireless and fiber-optic technologies. The Internet is generally defined as a global network connecting millions of computers. The internet originated with the U.S. government, which began building a computer network in the 1960s known as ARPANET. In 1985, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) commissioned the development of a university network backbone called NSFNET. The system was replaced by new networks operated by commercial internet service providers in 1995. The internet was brought to the public on a larger scale at around this time. Internet Architecture A. Backbone: Backbone is formed by large corporation like AT & T. These corporations have their own server farms connected to the backbone. It is a giant pipeline capable of transporting data around the world in milliseconds. There are many backbones in the world that are connected by NAP (Network Access Point) so that data can travel from one backbone to another backbone. B. ISP (Internet Service Provider): ISP can be of two types: (a) Regional ISPs (b) Local ISPs Regional ISPs are also referred as network service providers. These are business organizations that sells bandwidth or by accessing internet backbone directly. On the other hand, regional ISPs connect various local ISPs in the city through its router. Local ISPs purchase bandwidth from regional ISPs, divides it into smaller bandwidth and sells to clients. C. Clients: Clients lie at the lowest level of internet hierarchy. These are the computers at home or offices that are connected to local ISPs. Addresses in the internet IP Address: The Internet Protocol Address (or IP Address) is a unique address that computing devices such as personal computers, tablets, and smartphones use to identify itself and communicate with other devices in the IP network. Any device connected to the IP network must have a unique IP address within the network. An IP address is analogous to a street address or telephone number in that it is used to uniquely identify an entity. There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6). All computers with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are starting to use the new IPv6 address system as well. Here's what these two address types mean:  IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv4 address is expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each number is the decimal (base-10) representation for an eight-digit binary (base-2) number, also called an octet. For example: 216.27.61.137  IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv6 address is expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons, as in 2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652. Groups of numbers that contain all zeros are often omitted to save space, leaving a colon separator to mark the gap (as in 2001:cdba::3257:9652). Domain Name: A domain name is an Internet resource name that is universally understood by Web servers and online organizations and provides all pertinent destination information. To access an organization’s Web-based services, website users must know the precise domain name. A domain name locates an organization or other entity on the Internet. For example, the domain name: www.totalbaseball.com Internet Services Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of information such as text, graphics, sound and software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four different categories of Internet Services. Communication Services: There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of information with individuals or groups. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services: S.N. Service Description 1 Electronic Mail Used to send electronic message over the internet. 2 Telnet Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to internet. 3 Newsgroup Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common interests. 4 Internet Relay Chat (IRC) Allows the people from all over the world to communicate in real time. 5 Mailing Lists Used to organize group of internet users to share common information through e-mail. 6 Internet Telephony (VoIP) Allows the internet users to talk across internet to any PC equipped to receive the call. 7 Instant Messaging Offers real time chat between individuals and group of people. Eg. Yahoo messenger, MSN messenger. Information Retrieval Services: There exist several Information retrieval services offering easy access to information present on the internet. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services: S.N. Service Description 1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Enable the users to transfer files. 2 Archie It’s updated database of public FTP sites and their content. It helps to search a file by its name. 3 Gopher Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on remote sites. 4 Very Easy Rodent Oriented Netwide Index to Computer Achieved (VERONICA) VERONICA is gopher based resource. It allows access to the information resource stored on gopher’s servers. Web Services: Web services allow exchange of information between applications on the web. Using web services, applications can easily interact with each other. The web services are offered using concept of Utility Computing. World Wide Web (WWW): WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access documents spread over the several servers over the internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics, audio, video, hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the users to navigate between the documents. Video Conferencing: Video conferencing or Video teleconferencing is a method of communicating by two-way video and audio transmission with help of telecommunication technologies. centrally host and access documents, policies and information employees require to perform their roles.  Connecting people: globalized organizations and those with employees working remotely or across a range of office locations face challenges connecting their staff. An intranet helps colleagues find one another, connect, and communicate.  Knowledge management: alongside formal information and documents, organizations typically hold vast levels of knowledge amongst their employees. Through forums, discussion areas, idea boards and team areas, employees can ask questions or tap into the knowledge of their peers via an intranet – and best of all, that knowledge is captured and retained by the business on a searchable platform, even after that individual leaves the organization.  Completing tasks or workflows: combining forms or transactional applications with hosted information, intranets enable employees to self-serve and complete common processes- such as booking a leave of absence, submitting expenses, or undertaking internal training, all through their intranet.  Internal communications: through social and communication tools such as blogs, wikis, forums and discussions, an intranet can be used to facilitate effective two-way internal communications between management and staff.  Supporting strategic business objectives: intranets can play an active role in support high- level business objectives such as building, embedding and communicating a common culture, improving employee engagement or improving staff retention rates. Difference between Internet and Intranet Internet Intranet What is Worldwide system of connected networks. Each network consist millions of devices like computers, servers, routers, printers and many other devices. A private network, within an Enterprise or Organization. Users Unlimited Limited Accessible to Everyone Authorized users Identified by Unique IP address among all the computers in the world. Also identified by IP address, this is unique among all the computers in that particular intranet. Safety Not safe as intranet because anyone can access it and share anything. More safe because only authorized users can share information. Owned by No one owns the internet Can be owned by a organization, company or enterprise. Network Type Public Private Traffic Large traffic Less traffic Connection provided by Collection of LAN, WAN, MAN LAN, WAN Extranet An extranet is a controlled private network that allows access to partners, vendors and suppliers or an authorized set of customers – normally to a subset of the information accessible from an organization's intranet. An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside the company. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the Internet is perceived as a way to do business with other companies as well as to sell products to customers. Companies can use an extranet to:  Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)  Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those "in the trade"  Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts  Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies  Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies, such as an online banking application managed by one company on behalf of affiliated banks  Share news of common interest exclusively with partner companies Advantages of extranets include:  The ability to exchange large volumes of data using electronic data interchange  Sharing product data or catalogs with business partners  Joint company collaboration and training  Sharing services such as online banking applications among affiliated banks Disadvantages are expensive implementation and maintenance if hosted internally and the potential for compromised sensitive or proprietary information. Alternately, it may be hosted by an application service provider. Fetch-decode-Execute cycle A standard process describes the steps needed for processing to take place. It is called the Fetch - Decode - Execute cycle or sometimes simply called the Fetch-Execute Cycle. First of all, both the data and the program that acts upon that data are loaded into main memory (RAM) by the operating system. The CPU is now ready to do some work. 1. FETCH: The first step the CPU carries out is to fetch some data and instructions (program) from main memory then store them in its own internal temporary memory areas. These memory areas are called 'registers'. This is called the 'fetch' part of the cycle. For this to happen, the CPU makes use of a vital hardware path called the 'address bus'. The CPU places the address of the next item to be fetched on to the address bus. Data from this address then move from main memory into the CPU by travelling along another hardware path called the 'data bus'. You could imagine that it is a bit like a boat attendant at a lake calling in customers when their time is up -- "Boat number 3, time to come in!" The 'address' of the boat is 3 and the 'data' is its content. The boat is parked at a pier, which is like the internal register of the CPU. 2. DECODE: The next step is for the CPU to make sense of the instruction it has just fetched. This process is called 'decode'. The CPU is designed to understand a specific set of commands. These are called the 'instruction set' of the CPU. Each make of CPU has a different instruction set. The CPU decodes the instruction and prepares various areas within the chip in readiness of the next step. 3. EXECUTE: This is the part of the cycle when data processing actually takes place. The instruction is carried out upon the data (executed). The result of this processing is stored in yet another register. Once the execute stage is complete, the CPU sets itself up to begin another cycle once more. Electronic Mail E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by telecommunication. Electronic mail (email) is a digital mechanism for exchanging messages through Internet or intranet communication platforms. Email messages are relayed through email servers, which are provided by all Internet service providers (ISP). Emails are transmitted between two dedicated server folders: sender and recipient. A sender saves, sends or forwards email messages, whereas a recipient reads or downloads emails by accessing an email server. Email messages are comprised of three components, as follows:  Message envelope: Describes the email’s electronic format  Message header: Includes sender/recipient information and email subject line  Message body: Includes text, image and file attachments E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text. However, you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images and sound files, as attachments sent in binary streams. E-mail was one of the first uses of the Internet and is still the most popular use. A large percentage of the total traffic over the Internet is e-mail. E-mail can also be exchanged between online service provider users and in networks other than the Internet, both public and private. Multimedia and Virtual Reality Multimedia is the field concerned with the computer-controlled integration of text, graphics, drawings, still and moving images (Video), animation, audio, and any other media where every type of information can be represented, stored, transmitted and processed digitally. The word multimedia refers to an integration of multiple media such as visual images, sound, text, video and animation which together can multiply the impact of the message on the other level. Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material. The word multimedia comes from the Latin word “multus” which means “numerous” and media which means “middle” and “center”. Multimedia is general sense therefore means “multiple intermediaries” between sources and sink of information or multiple means by which information is stored, transmitted, presented and perceived. Multimedia is a combination of various types of media which are integrated together. One example of multimedia would be combining a website with video, audio, or text images. Use of Multimedia in Different Fields 1. Multimedia in Advertising: Advertising has changed a lot over the past couple of decades, and this is mainly due to the increased use of the internet in business. Multimedia plays a great and a vital role in the field of advertising. As whatever it is whether print or electronic advertisement, they first are prepared on the computer by using professionals' software's and then it is brought in front of the target audiences. Some of different types of advertising are:  Print advertising  Radio (audio) advertising  Television (video) advertising  Digital advertising  Display Ads  Mobile advertising 2. Multimedia in Education: In the area of education too, the multimedia has a great importance. Talking particularly about the schools, their usage has a significant role to play for children also. It is broadly used in the field of education and training. We used audio for imparting education even in traditional method, where charts, models etc. were used. Nowadays the classroom need is not limited to that traditional method rather it needs audio and visual media. With the use of multimedia everything can be integrated into one system. As an education aid the PC contains a high-quality display with mic option. This all has promoted the development of a wide range of computer-based training. 3. Multimedia in Mass Media: It is used in the field of mass media i.e. journalism, in various magazines and newspapers that are published periodically. The use of multimedia plays a vital role in a publishing house as there are many works of newspaper designing and other stuff also. Nowadays it's not only the text that we can see in the newspaper, but we can also see photographs in newspaper, this not only makes newspaper a perfect example but will also explain the worthiness of hypermedia. 4. Multimedia in Gaming Industry: One of the most exciting applications of multimedia is games. Nowadays the live internet is used to play gaming with multiple players has become popular. In fact, the first application of multimedia system was in the field of entertainment and that too in the video game industry. The integrated audio and video effects make various types of games more entertaining. 5. Multimedia in Science and Technology: Multimedia had a wide application in the field of science and technology. It is capable of transferring audio, sending message and formatted multimedia documents. At the same time, it also helps in live interaction through audio messages and it is only possible with the hypermedia. It reduces the time and cost can be arranged at any moment even in emergencies. At the same time, it is useful for surgeons as they can use images created from imaging scans of human body to practice complicated procedures such as brain removal and reconstructive surgery. The plans can be made in a better way to reduce the costs and complications. 6. Multimedia in Pre-Production: Pre-Production comprises of everything you do before you start recording of audio or video. This phase of your project is extremely important. Everything you do in pre-production will save time and aggravation during production and post-production. The techniques shown will include: how to design storyboards, including how to show correct camera angles for the scene, writing your story, and how to use video transitions can be done with the help of multimedia. 7. Multimedia in Post Production: It is the final step of production involves editing scenes, adding various transition effects, addition of voice to characters, background score, dubbing and much more can be done using multimedia technologies. 8. Multimedia in Fine Arts: In fine arts, there are multimedia artists, who blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporates interaction with the viewer. One of the famous artists is Peter Greenaway who is blending cinema with opera with the help of all sorts of digital media. 9. Multimedia in Engineering: Software engineers often use multimedia in computer simulations for anything such as military or industrial training. It is also used for software interfaces which are done as collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers. 10. Multimedia in Research: In the area of mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is primarily used for modeling and simulation. For example, looking at a molecular model by a scientist of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. 11. Multimedia in Medicine: The use of multimedia in medicine is increasing rapidly. In medicine, doctors can be trained by looking at a virtual surgery (Simulators). Using multimedia, they can simulate how the human body is affected by diseases spread by viruses and bacteria and then develop techniques to develop it. Elements of Multimedia Text  Text is the basic element of multimedia. It involves the use of text types, sizes, colours and background color.  In a multimedia application, other media or screen can be linked through the use of text. This is what you call Hypertext.  Text is the graphic representation of speech. Unlike speech, however, text is silent, easily stored, and easily manipulated.  Text in multimedia presentations makes it possible to convey large amounts of information using very little storage space. Computers customarily represent text using the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) system.  A good choice of words could help convey the intended message to the users (keywords).  Used in contents, menus, navigational buttons  Hypermedia is a superset of hypertext. Hypermedia documents contain links not only to other pieces of text, but also to other forms of media - sounds, images, and movies. Images themselves can be selected to link to sounds or documents. This means that browsers might not display a text file, but might display images or sound or animations. Hypermedia simply combines hypertext and multimedia. Audio  Produced by vibration, as perceived by the sense of hearing.  Audio is a term used to describe any sound or noise that is within a range the human ear is capable of hearing.  Measured in hertz, the audio signal on a computer is generated using a sound card and is heard through speakers or headphones.  Digital audio is sound that has been recorded in, or converted into, digital form. In digital audio, the sound wave of the audio signal is encoded as numerical samples in continuous sequence.  Sound is a sequence of naturally analog signals that are converted to digital signals by the audio card, using a microchip called an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). When sound is played, the digital signals are sent to the speakers where they are converted back to analog signals that generate varied sound.  A multimedia application may require the use of speech, music and sound effects. display space. (And for three-dimensional images, a z coordinates.) A raster image file identifies which of these coordinates to illuminate in monochrome or color values. The raster file is sometimes referred to as a bitmap because it contains information that is directly mapped to the display grid. An image is represented as a two dimensional array of spots/ pixels. Pixel stands for pictures element and is smallest element of monitor. Every pixel is represented by group of bits. Therefore, it is also known as bit-map image. It is ideal for application where photo realism is needed. We can create many colors by using mix of three colors RGB (Red, Green and Blue). Examples of raster image file types are: BMP, TIFF, GIF, and JPEG files. Vector and Raster: What’s the difference? 1. Scalability of vector and raster The first factor that will help you define whether a certain image is in vector or raster format, is scalability. Vector images don’t lose their sharpness and clarity, no matter to what extend or how many times you change their size. In contrast, raster (or bitmap) images get blurry and pixelated once you examine them from a close-up. Let’s illustrate it for you, so you can better see the difference. In the following illustration you will see a raster image which loses quality when enlarged. In comparison to it, a vector version of the same monster illustrated next to the raster doesn’t change its quality no matter the size: 2. Resolution of vector and raster The resolution of the raster graphics is formed by millions of square pixels, dots per inch (DPI) or pixels per inch (PPI), so their size is always a fixed value. If you don’t want a bitmap image to lose its quality, you can only scale it down. Consequently, the more you expand it, the more blurred it becomes. Vector graphics, on the other hand, are made up of plenty of paths, mathematically defined in terms of ratios, proportions, width, height and other dimensions. Every time you resize a vector image, its lines, curves and nodes are recalculated, so the result image remains sharp and clear. As you can expect, the edges remain smooth at all times. 3. Creation of vector and raster The digital image creation is always quite different for the two types. Vector images can be easily transformed into raster ones but it is more complicated and time-consuming to work the other way around. Vector graphics can be only created with specialized software such as Adobe Illustrator. This makes it impossible for photos, for example, to be taken in vector format. In addition to this, all printed images and photos taken with digital cameras, are in raster format. All in all, vector graphics which resemble realistic photos are nothing but finely detailed digital illustrations. 4. Flexibility of vector and raster Vector graphics can be resized numerously without losing quality. This makes them perfect for multipurpose projects requiring flexibility in the image size. For example, a vector logo is a reliable source from which you can create rasters in different sizes. You can use them for various marketing needs you’ll be facing in the future, either print, or web. On the contrary, you need a particular size of a raster format to achieve a certain quality. 5. File size Vector images are quite lighter than their raster peers because their dimensions are defined by mathematical calculations and not by millions of pixels. The high efficiency of their file sizes makes them much more convenient to transfer them from one device to another. Plus, they carry a lot of information in a relatively small file size format (compared to the same file size of a raster image format). On the other hand, raster file sizes are defined by their DPI or PPI, fixed widths and heights, which makes them much heavier while containing less information. 6. Compatibility of vector and raster Sometimes, an issue is the compatibility of vector graphics. You can only open and edit them with specialized software such as Adobe Illustrator. GraphicMama’s illustrations come in one of the most common vector file extensions: .eps. You can use this vector format as an alternative for editing, when you don’t have the .ai file. 7. Printing It’s true that 72 dpi raster images are usually the norm for web publications and they work just fine. For their printed version, though, you have two options. You should either work with vector source, or use high-resolution raster files. The latter option is often the preferred one, because, sometimes, vector images are not accurately printed. If you don’t want to compromise on the image’s clarity, the recommended raster resolution is 300 dpi. Since you can’t save photos as vectors, printed magazines, newspapers, etc. use the photos in their high- resolution rasters. Some Important Terms: Shading: Shading is used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. Light patterns, such as objects having light and shaded areas, help when creating the illusion of depth on paper. Antialiasing: Antialiasing is a technique used in digital imaging to reduce the visual defects that occur when high-resolution images are presented in a lower resolution. Aliasing manifests itself as jagged or stair-stepped lines (otherwise known as jaggies) on edges and objects that should otherwise be smooth. Antialiasing makes these curved or slanting lines smooth again by adding a slight discoloration to the edges of the line or object, causing the jagged edges to blur and melt together. If the image is zoomed out a bit, the human eye can no longer notice the slight discoloration that antialiasing creates. Morphing: Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image into another through a seamless transition. The Word "Morphing" comes from the word "metamorphosis" which means change shape, appearance or form. Morphing is done by coupling image warping with color interpolation. Morphing is the process in which the source image is gradually distorted and vanished while producing the target image. So earlier images in the sequence are similar to source image and last images are similar to target image. Middle image of the sequence is the average of the source image and the target image. Types of Image/Graphics Files 1. JPEG (or JPG) - Joint Photographic Experts Group JPEGs might be the most common file type you run across on the web, and more than likely the kind of image that is in your company's MS Word version of its letterhead. JPEGs are known for their "lossy" compression, meaning that the quality of the image decreases as the file size decreases. You can use JPEGs for projects on the web, in Microsoft Office documents, or for projects that require printing at a high resolution. Paying attention to the resolution and file size with JPEGs is essential in order to produce a nice looking project. 2. PNG - Portable Network Graphics PNGs are amazing for interactive documents such as web pages, but are not suitable for print. While PNGs are "lossless," meaning you can edit them and not lose quality, they are still low resolution. Think of PNGs as the next-generation GIF. This format has built-in transparency, but can also display higher color depths, which translates into millions of colors. The reason PNGs are used in most web projects is that you can save your image with more colors on a transparent background. This makes for a much sharper, web-quality image. 3. GIF - Graphics Interchange Format GIFs are most common in their animated form, which are all the rage on Tumblr pages and in banner ads. It seems like every other day we have a new Grumpy Cat or Honey Boo Boo animated GIF. In their more basic form, GIFs are formed from up to 256 colors in the RGB colorspace. Due to the limited number of colors, the file size is drastically reduced. This is a common file type for web projects where an image needs to load very quickly, as opposed to one that needs to retain a higher level of quality. 4. TIFF - Tagged Image File CMYK a four-color printing process that stands for cyan, magenta, yellow and key (black). These colors represent the four inks that will combine during the printing process. Files saved in this format will be optimized for physical printing. RGB is a light-based color model that stands for red, green and blue. These are the three primary colors of light that combine to produce other colors. Files saved in this format will be optimized for the web, mobile phones, film and video—anything that appears on a screen. Lossy vs. lossless Each raster image file is either lossless or lossy, depending on how the format handles your image data. Lossless image formats capture all of the data of your original file. Nothing from the original file, photo, or piece of art is lost—hence the term “lossless.” The file may still be compressed, but all lossless formats will be able to reconstruct your image to its original state. Lossy image formats approximate what your original image looks like. For example, a lossy image might reduce the amount of colors in your image or analyze the image for any unnecessary data. These clever technical tricks will typically reduce the file size, though they may reduce the quality of your image. Typically, lossy files are much smaller than lossless files, making them ideal to use online where file size and download speed are vital. Animation Animation is a method in which pictures are manipulated to appear as moving images. Computer animation is a general term for a kind of visual digital display technology that simulates moving objects on-screen. Animation is the illusion of movement created by showing a series of still pictures in rapid succession. The simplest and earliest forms of computer animation simply moved objects around on a screen in what's called two-dimensional computer graphics animation. These kinds of technology are still common, for example, in animated GIF files. Early 64-bit computer systems could achieve these kinds of animation, which gradually developed into more sophisticated forms where pre-drawn images were juxtaposed on moving backgrounds to simulate an elaborate animation reel. Today's computer animation, also called computer-generated imagery (CGI) animation, uses three-dimensional methods involving digitally produced pieces placed onto a conceptual "skeleton" or other framework. CGI may refer to static or animated content, whereas computer animation specifically refers to displays of objects in motion. 1. Traditional Animation (2D, Cel, Hand Drawn) Traditional animation is sometimes called hand-drawn animation or cel animation and, for most of the 20th Century, many popular animated films were created this way. It was a lengthy process. Thousands of pictures were drawn entirely by hand on acetate sheets, or cels, with each cel being slightly different from the one before it. Each cel was photographed onto a separate frame of film so that when the film reel was played, the animation moved. This form of animation could also be combined with live-action video by placing the cels on top of the film. This technique was popular in the late 80s and early 90s, and was used in films such as Space Jam and Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Traditional animation takes a lot of artistic skill and has many different artistic styles: Disney’s films are very recognizable and considered quite realistic, whilst Studio Ghibli characters have a distinctive anime look. More stylistic drawings were used for many cartoon programmes, such as The Flintstones, and the Beatles’ Yellow Submarine used a pop-art style that was popular at the time it was made. The music video for the song “Take On Me” by A-ha is a good example of another style of traditional animation called rotoscoping, which used a live-action recording as a template for animation. In this video, a very simple pencil-sketch style was used. 2. 2D Animation (Vector-Based) In the term “2D animation” 2D stands for two-dimensional, meaning that 2D artists create images and characters in the two-dimensional format and enliven them with movement. This type of animation is regarded to be the traditional form of animation with plain, non-voluminous characters moving up, down, left, and right. 2D animation focuses on creating characters, storyboards, and backgrounds in two-dimensional environments. Often thought of as traditional animation, the figures can move up and down, left, and right. They do not appear to move toward or away from the viewer, as they would in 3D animation. 2D animation uses bitmap and vector graphics to create and edit the animated images and is created using computers and software programs, such as Adobe Photoshop, Flash, After Effects, and Encore. These animations may be used in advertisements, films, television shows, computer games, or websites. Notable examples of 2D animations: Snow White, The Jungle Book, The Little Mermaid, The Simpsons, Family Guy, South Park etc. 3. 3D Animation (CGI, Computer Animation) It is the process of generating three-dimensional moving images in a digital environment. Careful manipulation of 3D models or objects is carried out within 3D software for exporting picture sequences giving them the illusion of animation or movement. Objects in a 3D animation exist in an X, Y & Z world and can do things that are impossible in 2D animation such as having volume, rotating 360 degrees, and more. However, this is completely based on the technique used for manipulating the objects. The procedure of generating 3D is sequentially categorized into three main sections and these are modeling, layout and animation and rendering. Modeling is the phase that describes the procedure of generating 3D objects within a certain scene. Layout and animation phase describes the process followed for positioning and animating the objects within a certain scene. Lastly, rendering described the end result or output of completed computer graphics. The process of production is successfully completed with the careful combination of the sections mentioned above and also some other sub-sections. Example of 3D animation: Toy Story, Shrek, The Incredibles, Jurassic Park (the dinosaurs), The Transformers (the robots), Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, Fanboy & Chum Chum etc. 4. Motion Graphics (Typography, Animated Logos) Motion graphics are pieces of digital footage or animation which create the illusion of motion or rotation, and are usually combined with audio for use in multimedia projects. Motion graphics is a new term for a specific genre of animation that has been around for a while. Motion graphics are the crossroad between animation and graphic design. Usually, these are purpose-driven pieces with the goal of presenting information to the viewer through the use of animated text or graphics. They often have voice-overs narrating what the text or graphics are representing. Lyric videos are a nice example of motion graphics; the graphics echo what the singer is singing. With the more widespread popularity and lower cost of computer animation, motion graphics began to differentiate themselves from regular animation. Motion graphics have begun to define a specific style as well — often bright and colorful with no outlines (the lack of outlines makes the computer animation easier). 2. Immersion: Virtual reality immersion is the perception of being physically present in a non- physical world. It encompasses the sense of presence, which is the point where the human brain believes that is somewhere it is really not, and is accomplished through purely mental and/or physical means. The state of total immersion exists when enough senses are activated to create the perception of being present in a non-physical world. Two common types of immersion include:  Mental Immersion – A deep mental state of engagement, with suspension of disbelief that one is in a virtual environment.  Physical Immersion – Exhibited physical engagement in a virtual environment, with suspension of disbelief that one is in a virtual environment. 3. Sensory Feedback: Virtual reality requires as many of our senses as possible to be simulated. These senses include vision (visual), hearing (aural), touch (haptic), and more. Properly stimulating these senses requires sensory feedback, which is achieved through integrated hardware and software (also known as inputs). Examples of this hardware and inputs are discussed below as key components to a virtual reality system, which include head mounted displays (HMD), special gloves or hand accessories, and hand controls. 4. Interactivity: The element of interaction is crucial for virtual reality experiences to provide users with enough comfort to naturally engage with the virtual environment. If the virtual environment responds to a user’s action in a natural manner, excitement and senses of immersion will remain. If the virtual environment cannot respond quick enough, the human brain will quickly notice and the sense of immersion will diminish. Virtual environment responses to interaction can include the way a participant moves around or changes in their viewpoint; generally through movements of their head. Types of Virtual Reality Several categories of virtual reality technologies exist, with more likely to emerge as this technology progresses. The various types of virtual reality differ in their levels of immersion and also virtual reality applications and use cases. Below, we explore a few of the different categories of virtual reality: Non-Immersive: Non-immersive simulations are the least immersive implementation of virtual reality technology. In a non-immersive simulation, only subsets of the user’s senses are stimulated, allowing for peripheral awareness of the reality outside the virtual reality simulation. Users enter into these three- dimensional virtual environments through a portal or window by utilizing standard high resolution monitors powered by processing power typically found on conventional desktop workstations. Semi-Immersive: Semi-immersive simulations provide a more immersive experience, in which the user is partly but not fully immersed in a virtual environment. Semi-immersive simulations closely resemble and utilize many of the same technologies found in flight simulation. Semi-immersive simulations are powered by high performance graphical computing systems, which are often then coupled with large screen projector systems or multiple television projection systems to properly stimulate the user’s visuals. Fully Immersive: Fully-immersive simulations provide the most immersive implementation of virtual reality technology. In a fully-immersive simulation, hardware such as head-mounted displays and motion detecting devices are used to stimulate all of a user’s senses. Fully immersive simulations are able to provide very realistic user experiences by delivering a wide field of view, high resolutions, increased update rates (also called refresh rate), and high levels of contrast into a user’s head-mounted display (HMD). Augmented Reality Augmented reality is the integration of digital information with the user's environment in real time. Unlike virtual reality, which creates a totally artificial environment, augmented reality uses the existing environment and overlays new information on top of it. Definition: An enhanced version of reality where live direct or indirect views of physical real- world environments are augmented with superimposed computer-generated images over a user’s view of the real-world, thus enhancing one’s current perception of reality. A Simple Explanation of Augmented Reality (AR) The origin of the word augmented is augment, which means to add or enhance something. In the case of Augmented Reality (also called AR), graphics, sounds, and touch feedback are added into our natural world to create an enhanced user experience. Augmented Reality vs Virtual Reality Unlike virtual reality, which requires you to inhabit an entirely virtual environment, augmented reality uses your existing natural environment and simply overlays virtual information on top of it. As both virtual and real worlds harmoniously coexist, users of augmented reality experience a new and improved natural world where virtual information is used as a tool to provide assistance in everyday activities. Applications of augmented reality can be as simple as a text-notification or as complicated as an instruction on how to perform a life-threatening surgical procedure. They can highlight certain features, enhance understandings, and provide accessible and timely data. Cell phones apps and business applications by companies using augmented reality are a few of the many applications driving augmented reality application development. The key point is that the information provided is highly topical and relevant to what you want you are doing. Types of Augmented Reality Several categories of augmented reality technology exist, each with varying differences in their objectives and applicational use cases. Below, we explore the various types of technologies that make up augmented reality: Marker Based Augmented Reality Marker-based augmented reality (also called Image Recognition) uses a camera and some type of visual marker, such as a QR/2D code, to produce a result only when the marker is sensed by a reader. Marker based applications use a camera on the device to distinguish a marker from any other real world object. Distinct, but simple patterns (such as a QR code) are used as the markers, because they can be easily recognized and do not require a lot of processing power to read. The position and orientation is also calculated, in which some type of content and/or information is then overlaid the marker. Markerless Augmented Reality As one of the most widely implemented applications of augmented reality, markerless (also called location-based, position-based, or GPS) augmented reality, uses a GPS, digital compass, velocity meter, or accelerometer which is embedded in the device to provide data based on your location. A strong force behind markerless augmented reality technology is the wide availability of smartphones and location detection features they provide. It is most commonly used for mapping directions, finding nearby businesses, and other location-centric mobile applications. Projection Based Augmented Reality Projection based augmented reality works by projecting artificial light onto real world surfaces. Projection based augmented reality applications allow for human interaction by sending light onto a real world surface and then sensing the human interaction (i.e. touch) of that projected light. Detecting the user’s interaction is done by differentiating between an expected (or known) projection and the altered projection (caused by the user’s interaction). Another interesting application of projection based augmented reality utilizes laser plasma technology to project a three-dimensional (3D) interactive hologram into mid-air. Superimposition Based Augmented Reality Superimposition based augmented reality either partially or fully replaces the original view of an object with a newly augmented view of that same object. In superimposition based augmented reality, object recognition plays a vital role because the application cannot replace the glasses that a command is soon to follow. For example, “OK, Glass, take a picture” will send a command to the microprocessor to snap a photo of whatever you’re looking at. How are reality technologies being used in the real world? Reality applications are practically limitless in terms of applicability and have the ability to play a vital role in all aspects of life. These reality technologies will change the way we consume information and entertainment, communicate, express and share creativity, and conduct business. Below, we explore many of the countless applications and use cases where this revolutionary technology is currently being applied to. Aviation Applications: The ultimate guide to aviation applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine how applications such as virtual reality flight training and augmented reality pilot assistance. Business Applications: The ultimate guide to business applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine how applications such as workplace productivity and virtual reality training are being used. Communication Applications: The ultimate guide to communication applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We explore the leading innovations such as Facebook Social VR, Google Daydream, and more. Construction Applications: The ultimate guide to construction applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine how applications such as virtual reality plan reviews and augmented reality construction worker assistants. Design Applications: The ultimate guide to design applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine applications such as AR and VR in architecture and interior home design. Education Applications: The ultimate guide to education applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine applications such as virtual reality field trips and interactive educational content. Entertainment Applications: The ultimate guide to virtual, augmented and mixed reality applications of entertainment. We examine applications such as VR movie theaters, VR theme park rides (roller coasters), and adult industry usage. Gaming Applications: The ultimate guide to gaming applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine applications augmented reality gaming and tabletop virtual reality gaming. Healthcare Applications: The ultimate guide to healthcare applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine applications such as AR and VR in surgery, hands-on training, and recovery treatments. Marketing Applications: The ultimate guide to marketing and advertising applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine the best AR and VR campaigns and how utilize these new technologies. Manufacturing Applications: The ultimate guide to manufacturing applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine applications such as AR inventory management, safety training, maintenance inspection, and more. Shopping Applications: The ultimate guide to shopping and retail applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine shopping and retail applications such as AR and VR in- store product identification and fitment visualization. Sports Applications: The ultimate guide to sports applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine how applications such as virtual reality plan reviews and augmented reality construction worker assistants. Therapy Applications: The ultimate guide to therapy applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality. We examine therapy applications such as how AR and VR treat fear of flying, PTSD, and arachnophobia. Travel Applications: The ultimate guide to travel applications of virtual, augmented and mixed reality, including virtual museum visits and virtual reality inflight entertainment. New Technologies in Information Technology Electronic Commerce Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers to the buying and selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer of money and data to execute these transactions. E-commerce is the activity of buying or selling of products on online services or over the Internet. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. The history of ecommerce begins with the first ever online sale: on the August 11, 1994 a man sold a CD by the band Sting to his friend through his website NetMarket, an American retail platform. This is the first example of a consumer purchasing a product from a business through the World Wide Web—or “ecommerce” as we commonly know it today. Since then, ecommerce has evolved to make products easier to discover and purchase through online retailers and marketplaces. Independent freelancers, small businesses, and large corporations have all benefited from ecommerce, which enables them to sell their goods and services at a scale that was not possible with traditional offline retail. Types of e-commerce Business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce refers to the electronic exchange of products, services or information between businesses rather than between businesses and consumers. Examples include online directories and product and supply exchange websites that allow businesses to search for products, services and information and to initiate transactions through e-procurement interfaces. Examples include Xero, online accounting software for small businesses, ADP, a payroll processing company, and Square, a payments solution for SMBs. Business-to-consumer (B2C) is the retail part of e-commerce on the internet. It is when businesses sell products, services or information directly to consumers. The term was popular during the dot-com boom of the late 1990s, when online retailers and sellers of goods were a novelty. Today, there are innumerable virtual stores and malls on the internet selling all types of consumer goods. The most recognized example of these sites is Amazon, which dominates the B2C market. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) is a type of e-commerce in which consumer trade products, services and information with each other online. These transactions are generally conducted through a third party that provides an online platform on which the transactions are carried out. Online auctions and classified advertisements are two examples of C2C platforms, with eBay and Craigslist being two of the most popular of these platforms. Because eBay is a business, this form of e-commerce could also be called C2B2C -- consumer-to-business-to-consumer. Consumer-to-business (C2B) is a type of e-commerce in which consumers make their products and services available online for companies to bid on and purchase. This is the opposite of the traditional commerce model of B2C. A popular example of a C2C platform is a market that sells royalty-free photographs, images, media and design elements, such as iStock. Another example would be a job board. Mobile e-commerce (m-commerce) M-commerce is a type of e-commerce on the rise that features online sales transactions made via mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets. M-commerce includes mobile shopping, mobile banking and mobile payments. E-commerce applications E-commerce is conducted using a variety of applications, such as email, online catalogs and shopping carts, EDI, the File Transfer Protocol, web services, and mobile devices. This includes business-to-business activities and outreach, such as using email for unsolicited ads -- usually viewed as spam -- to consumers and other business prospects, as well as sending out e- newsletters to subscribers and SMS -- short message service -- texts to mobile devices. More companies now try to entice consumers directly online, using tools such as digital coupons, social media marketing and targeted advertisements. The benefits of e-commerce include its around-the-clock availability, the speed of access, the wide availability of goods and services for the consumer, easy accessibility, and international reach. Its perceived downsides include sometimes limited customer service, consumers not being able to see or touch a product prior to purchase, and the wait time for product shipping. decisions by allowing data consolidation, analysis and reporting at different aggregate levels. Data is populated into the DW through the processes of extraction, transformation and loading. A data warehouse is constructed by integrating data from multiple heterogeneous sources that support analytical reporting, structured and/or ad hoc queries, and decision making. Data warehousing involves data cleaning, data integration, and data consolidations. A data warehouse is a large centralized repository of data that contains information from many sources within an organization. A data warehousing is a technique for collecting and managing data from varied sources to provide meaningful business insights. It is a blend of technologies and components which allows the strategic use of data. The data warehouse architecture was born in the 1980s as an architectural model designed to support the flow of data from operational systems to decision support systems. These systems require analysis of large amounts of heterogeneous data accumulated by companies over time. In a data warehouse, data from many heterogeneous sources is extracted into a single area, transformed according to the decision support system needs and stored into the warehouse. For example, company stores information pertaining to its employees, their salaries, developed products, customer information, sales and invoices. The CEO might want to ask a question pertaining to the latest cost-reduction measures; the answers will involve analysis of all of this data. This is a main service of the data warehouse, i.e., allowing executives to reach business decisions based on all these disparate raw data items. Thus, a data warehouse contributes to future decision making. As in the above example, a firm administrator can query warehouse data to find out the market demand of a particular product, sales data by geographical region or answers other inquiries. This provides insight about required steps to more effectively market a particular product. Unlike an operational data store, a data warehouse contains aggregate historical data, which may be analyzed to reach critical business decisions. Despite associated costs and effort, most major corporations today use data warehouses. Data warehouse design methods In addition to Inmon's top-down approach to data warehouses and Kimball's bottom-up method, some organizations have also adopted hybrid options.  Top-down approach: Inmon's method calls for building the data warehouse first. Data is extracted from operational and possibly third-party external systems and may be validated in a staging area before being integrated into a normalized data model. Data marts are created from the data stored in the data warehouse.  Bottom-up method: Kimball's data warehousing architecture calls for dimensional data marts to be created first. Data is extracted from operational systems, moved to a staging area and modeled into a star schema design, with one or more fact tables connected to one or more dimensional tables. The data is then processed and loaded into data marts, each of which focuses on a specific business process. Data marts are integrated using a data warehouse bus architecture to form an enterprise data warehouse.  Hybrid method: Hybrid approaches to data warehouse design include aspects from both the top-down and bottom-up methods. Organizations often seek to combine the speed of the bottom-up approach with the integration achieved in a top-down design. Who needs Data warehouse? Data warehouse is needed for all types of users like:  Decision makers who rely on mass amount of data  Users who use customized, complex processes to obtain information from multiple data sources.  It is also used by the people who want simple technology to access the data  It also essential for those people who want a systematic approach for making decisions.  If the user wants fast performance on a huge amount of data which is a necessity for reports, grids or charts, then Data warehouse proves useful.  Data warehouse is a first step If you want to discover 'hidden patterns' of data-flows and groupings. There are mainly five components of Data Warehouse: 1. Data Warehouse Database: The central database is the foundation of the data warehousing environment. This database is implemented on the RDBMS technology. Although, this kind of implementation is constrained by the fact that traditional RDBMS system is optimized for transactional database processing and not for data warehousing. For instance, ad-hoc query, multi-table joins; aggregates are resource intensive and slow down performance. Hence, alternative approaches to Database are used as listed below-  In a data warehouse, relational databases are deployed in parallel to allow for scalability. Parallel relational databases also allow shared memory or shared nothing model on various multiprocessor configurations or massively parallel processors.  New index structures are used to bypass relational table scan and improve speed.  Use of multidimensional database (MDDBs) to overcome any limitations which are placed because of the relational data model. Example: Essbase from Oracle. 2. Sourcing, Acquisition, Clean-up and Transformation Tools (ETL): The data sourcing, transformation, and migration tools are used for performing all the conversions, summarizations, and all the changes needed to transform data into a unified format in the data warehouse. They are also called Extract, Transform and Load (ETL) Tools. Their functionality includes:  Anonymize data as per regulatory stipulations.  Eliminating unwanted data in operational databases from loading into Data warehouse.  Search and replace common names and definitions for data arriving from different sources.  Calculating summaries and derived data  In case of missing data, populate them with defaults.  De-duplicated repeated data arriving from multiple data sources. 3. Metadata: The name Meta Data suggests some high- level technological concept. However, it is quite simple. Metadata is data about data which defines the data warehouse. It is used for building, maintaining and managing the data warehouse. In the Data Warehouse Architecture, meta-data plays an important role as it specifies the source, usage, values, and features of data warehouse data. It also defines how data can be changed and processed. It is closely connected to the data warehouse. For example, a line in sales database may contain: 4030 KJ732 299.90 This is a meaningless data until we consult the Meta that tell us it was  Model number: 4030  Sales Agent ID: KJ732  Total sales amount of $299.90 Therefore, Meta Data are essential ingredients in the transformation of data into knowledge. Metadata can be classified into following categories:  Technical Meta Data: This kind of Metadata contains information about warehouse which is used by Data warehouse designers and administrators.  Business Meta Data: This kind of Metadata contains detail that gives end-users a way easy to understand information stored in the data warehouse. 4. Query Tools: One of the primary objects of data warehousing is to provide information to businesses to make strategic decisions. Query tools allow users to interact with the data warehouse system. These tools fall into four different categories: Why do we need Data Mart?  Data Mart helps to enhance user's response time due to reduction in volume of data  It provides easy access to frequently requested data.  Data mart is simpler to implement when compared to corporate Data warehouse. At the same time, the cost of implementing Data Mart is certainly lower compared with implementing a full data warehouse.  Compared to Data Warehouse, a data mart is agile. In case of change in model, data mart can be built quicker due to a smaller size.  A Data mart is defined by a single Subject Matter Expert. On the contrary data warehouse is defined by interdisciplinary SME from a variety of domains. Hence, Data mart is more open to change compared to Data warehouse.  Data is partitioned and allows very granular access control privileges.  Data can be segmented and stored on different hardware/software platforms. Types of Data Marts Dependent Data Marts A dependent data mart is created from an existing enterprise data warehouse. It is the top-down approach that begins with storing all business data in one central location, and then extracts a clearly defined portion of the data when needed for analysis. To form a data warehouse, a specific set of data is aggregated (formed into a cluster) from the warehouse, restructured, then loaded to the data mart where it can be queried. Dependent data marts can be built in two different ways. Either where a user can access both the data mart and data warehouse, depending on need, or where access is limited only to the data mart. The second approach is not optimal as it produces sometimes referred to as a data junkyard. In the data junkyard, all data begins with a common source, but they are scrapped, and mostly junked. Independent Data Marts An independent data mart is a stand-alone system—created without the use of a data warehouse—that focuses on one subject area or business function. Data is extracted from internal or external data sources (or both), processed, and then loaded to the data mart repository where it is stored until needed for business analytics. Independent data marts are not difficult to design and develop. They are beneficial to achieve short-term goals but may become cumbersome to manage—each with its own ETL tool and logic—as business needs expand and become more complex. Hybrid Data Marts A hybrid data mart combines data from an existing data warehouse and other operational source systems. It unites the speed and end-user focus of a top-down approach with the benefits of the enterprise-level integration of the bottom-up method. Hybrid data marts require minimal data cleansing, support large storage structures and are flexible. Hybrid data marts are well-suited for environments with multiple databases and organizations that require quick turnaround. Data lakes and data marts are often confused, but they are not interchangeable terms. Data lakes consist of raw, undefined data; often, the purpose of this data has not yet been determined. Data marts hold specific data whose purpose has been clearly defined by the users. In data marts, space is never wasted, as all of the data has been processed and fits a specific need; data lakes serve as a repository for unstructured, unrefined data. Advantages  Data marts contain a subset of organization-wide data. This Data is valuable to a specific group of people in an organization.  It is cost-effective alternatives to a data warehouse, which can take high costs to build.  Data Mart allows faster access of Data.  Data Mart is easy to use as it is specifically designed for the needs of its users. Thus a data mart can accelerate business processes.  Data Marts needs less implementation time compare to Data Warehouse systems. It is faster to implement Data Mart as you only need to concentrate the only subset of the data.  It contains historical data which enables the analyst to determine data trends. Disadvantages  Many a times enterprises create too many disparate and unrelated data marts without much benefit. It can become a big hurdle to maintain.  Data Mart cannot provide company-wide data analysis as their data set is limited. Data Mining Data mining is the process of sorting through large data sets to identify patterns and establish relationships to solve problems through data analysis. Data mining tools allow enterprises to predict future trends. Data mining is the practice of automatically searching large stores of data to discover patterns and trends that go beyond simple analysis. Data mining uses sophisticated mathematical algorithms to segment the data and evaluate the probability of future events. Data mining is also known as Knowledge Discovery in Data (KDD). Let’s look at some such examples of Data Mining that you come across frequently in your day-to-day life: 1. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Both Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning are gaining a lot of relevance in the world today, and the credit goes to Data Mining. How else do you make a system “artificially intelligent” without feeding it with relevant data and patterns? And, how do you extract relevant patterns if not by Data Mining? One of the most common examples of AI and Machine Learning that you most likely come across every day is the beloved recommendation systems. Has it ever happened that after buying a product from Amazon, you’re shown a list of recommended products, and you end up buying one  These data sources may include multiple databases, flat filer or data cubes. There are issues like object matching and schema integration which can arise during Data Integration process. It is a quite complex and tricky process as data from various sources unlikely to match easily. For example, table A contains an entity named cust_no whereas another table B contains an entity named cust-id.  Therefore, it is quite difficult to ensure that both of these given objects refer to the same value or not. Here, Metadata should be used to reduce errors in the data integration process.  Next, the step is to search for properties of acquired data. A good way to explore the data is to answer the data mining questions (decided in business phase) using the query, reporting, and visualization tools.  Based on the results of query, the data quality should be ascertained. Missing data if any should be acquired. Data preparation: In this phase, data is made production ready. The data preparation process consumes about 90% of the time of the project. The data from different sources should be selected, cleaned, transformed, formatted, anonymized, and constructed (if required). Data cleaning is a process to "clean" the data by smoothing noisy data and filling in missing values. For example, for a customer demographics profile, age data is missing. The data is incomplete and should be filled. In some cases, there could be data outliers. For instance, age has a value 300. Data could be inconsistent. For instance, name of the customer is different in different tables. Data transformation operations change the data to make it useful in data mining. Following transformation can be applied: A. Smoothing: It helps to remove noise from the data. B. Aggregation: Summary or aggregation operations are applied to the data. I.e., the weekly sales data is aggregated to calculate the monthly and yearly total. C. Generalization: In this step, Low-level data is replaced by higher-level concepts with the help of concept hierarchies. For example, the city is replaced by the county. D. Normalization: Normalization performed when the attribute data are scaled up o scaled down. Example: Data should fall in the range -2.0 to 2.0 post-normalization. E. Attribute construction: these attributes are constructed and included the given set of attributes helpful for data mining. The result of this process is a final data set that can be used in modeling. Modeling: In this phase, mathematical models are used to determine data patterns.  Based on the business objectives, suitable modeling techniques should be selected for the prepared dataset.  Create a scenario to test check the quality and validity of the model.  Run the model on the prepared dataset.  Results should be assessed by all stakeholders to make sure that model can meet data mining objectives. Evaluation: In this phase, patterns identified are evaluated against the business objectives.  Results generated by the data mining model should be evaluated against the business objectives.  Gaining business understanding is an iterative process. In fact, while understanding, new business requirements may be raised because of data mining.  A go or no-go decision is taken to move the model in the deployment phase. Deployment: In the deployment phase, you ship your data mining discoveries to everyday business operations.  The knowledge or information discovered during data mining process should be made easy to understand for non-technical stakeholders.  A detailed deployment plan, for shipping, maintenance, and monitoring of data mining discoveries is created.  A final project report is created with lessons learned and key experiences during the project. This helps to improve the organization's business policy. Data Mining Techniques 1. Classification: This analysis is used to retrieve important and relevant information about data, and metadata. This data mining method helps to classify data in different classes. 2. Clustering: Clustering analysis is a data mining technique to identify data that are like each other. This process helps to understand the differences and similarities between the data. 3. Regression: Regression analysis is the data mining method of identifying and analyzing the relationship between variables. It is used to identify the likelihood of a specific variable, given the presence of other variables. 4. Association Rules: This data mining technique helps to find the association between two or more Items. It discovers a hidden pattern in the data set. 5. Outer detection: This type of data mining technique refers to observation of data items in the dataset which do not match an expected pattern or expected behavior. This technique can be used in a variety of domains, such as intrusion, detection, fraud or fault detection, etc. Outer detection is also called Outlier Analysis or Outlier mining. 6. Sequential Patterns: This data mining technique helps to discover or identify similar patterns or trends in transaction data for certain period. 7. Prediction: Prediction has used a combination of the other data mining techniques like trends, sequential patterns, clustering, classification, etc. It analyzes past events or instances in a right sequence for predicting a future event. Challenges of Implementation of Data mine:  Skilled Experts are needed to formulate the data mining queries.  Over fitting: Due to small size training database, a model may not fit future states.  Data mining needs large databases which sometimes are difficult to manage  Business practices may need to be modified to determine to use the information uncovered.  If the data set is not diverse, data mining results may not be accurate.  Integration information needed from heterogeneous databases and global information systems could be complex Data Mining Tools Following are 2 popular Data Mining Tools widely used in Industry R-language: R language is an open source tool for statistical computing and graphics. R has a wide variety of statistical, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification and graphical techniques. It offers effective data handling and storage facility. Oracle Data Mining: Oracle Data Mining popularly known as ODM is a module of the Oracle Advanced Analytics Database. This Data mining tool allows data analysts to generate detailed insights and makes predictions. It helps predict customer behavior, develops customer profiles, and identifies cross-selling opportunities. Benefits of Data Mining:  Data mining technique helps companies to get knowledge-based information.  Data mining helps organizations to make the profitable adjustments in operation and production.  The data mining is a cost-effective and efficient solution compared to other statistical data applications.  Data mining helps with the decision-making process.  Facilitates automated prediction of trends and behaviors as well as automated discovery of hidden patterns.  It can be implemented in new systems as well as existing platforms  It is the speedy process which makes it easy for the users to analyze huge amount of data in less time.  Slice. This enables an analyst to take one level of information for display, such as "sales in 2017."  Dice. This allows an analyst to select data from multiple dimensions to analyze, such as "sales of blue beach balls in Iowa in 2017."  Pivot. Analysts can gain a new view of data by rotating the data axes of the cube. OLAP software then locates the intersection of dimensions, such as all products sold in the Eastern region above a certain price during a certain time period, and displays them. The result is the "measure"; each OLAP cube has at least one to perhaps hundreds of measures, which are derived from information stored in fact tables in the data warehouse. OLAP cube: At the core of the OLAP, concept is an OLAP Cube. The OLAP cube is a data structure optimized for very quick data analysis. The OLAP Cube consists of numeric facts called measures which are categorized by dimensions. OLAP Cube is also called the hypercube. Usually, data operations and analysis are performed using the simple spreadsheet, where data values are arranged in row and column format. This is ideal for two-dimensional data. However, OLAP contains multidimensional data, with data usually obtained from a different and unrelated source. Using a spreadsheet is not an optimal option. The cube can store and analyze multidimensional data in a logical and orderly manner. An OLAP cube stores and categorizes data as dimensions and is considered in terms of "measures." Picture a Cartesian plane with three axes (x, y and z), and each axis notch signifies a given measure, with each axis being a data category. These cubes are pre-summarized across each dimension, which vastly improves query time in relational databases. Types of OLAP Servers Type of OLAP Explanation Relational OLAP(ROLAP): ROLAP is an extended RDBMS along with multidimensional data mapping to perform the standard relational operation. Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP) MOLAP implements operation in multidimensional data. Hybrid Online Analytical Processing (HOLAP) In HOLAP approach the aggregated totals are stored in a multidimensional database while the detailed data is stored in the relational database. This offers both data efficiency of the ROLAP model and the performance of the MOLAP model. Desktop OLAP In Desktop OLAP, a user downloads a part of the data from the database (DOLAP) locally, or on their desktop and analyzes it. DOLAP is relatively cheaper to deploy as it offers very few functionalities compares to other OLAP systems. Web OLAP (WOLAP) Web OLAP which is OLAP system accessible via the web browser. WOLAP is a three-tiered architecture. It consists of three components: client, middleware, and a database server. Mobile OLAP: Mobile OLAP helps users to access and analyze OLAP data using their mobile devices Spatial OLAP : SOLAP is created to facilitate management of both spatial and non-spatial data in a Geographic Information system (GIS) We have four types of OLAP systems/servers: 1. Relational OLAP: ROLAP works with data that exist in a relational database. Facts and dimension tables are stored as relational tables. It also allows multidimensional analysis of data and is the fastest growing OLAP. ROLAP includes the following:  Implementation of aggregation navigation logic.  Optimization for each DBMS back end.  Additional tools and services. Advantages of ROLAP model:  High data efficiency. It offers high data efficiency because query performance and access language are optimized particularly for the multidimensional data analysis.  Scalability. This type of OLAP system offers scalability for managing large volumes of data, and even when the data is steadily increasing. Drawbacks of ROLAP model:  Demand for higher resources: ROLAP needs high utilization of manpower, software, and hardware resources.  Aggregately data limitations. ROLAP tools use SQL for all calculation of aggregate data. However, there are no set limits to the for handling computations.  Slow query performance. Query performance in this model is slow when compared with MOLAP 2. Multidimensional OLAP: MOLAP uses array-based multidimensional storage engines for multidimensional views of data. With multidimensional data stores, the storage utilization may be low if the data set is sparse. Therefore, many MOLAP server use two levels of data storage representation to handle dense and sparse data sets. Advantages 7 Provides summarized and consolidated data. Provides primitive and highly detailed data. 8 Provides summarized and multidimensional view of data. Provides detailed and flat relational view of data. 9 Number or users is in hundreds. Number of users is in thousands. 10 Number of records accessed is in millions. Number of records accessed is in tens. 11 Database size is from 100 GB to 1 TB Database size is from 100 MB to 1 GB. 12 Highly flexible. Provides high performance. APPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Computer in Business Just about every business you can think of uses computers in one way or another to carry out its functions. From generating reports to communicating with clients, computers do a lot for the efficiency with which a business is run. The computer has brought the business a long way from the age of pen and paper, and folders stored in dusty storage compartments. The uses of a computer are simply endless. Not only do businesses use computers to carry out different functions, they also use many different types of computers to carry out those functions. These functions include laptops, PCs, servers, and even smartphones. Because of computers, concepts such as flexible working schedules and remote work forces have become possible – enabling employees to work from wherever they want and at whatever times they wish. Computers Are Used for Communication: When it comes to establishing contact with clients, computers are a vital tool; they are also vital when it comes to maintaining that contact. This is a very important computer application in business, enabling a business to communicate with its clients via email, IM, Skype, collaboration software, and via various other communication solutions that a business might wish to use. When a business can keep in touch with its clients, it becomes easier for the clients to make inquiries of the business or to ask for more information about the services and products the business offers. It also becomes easier for the business to offer customer support to its clients in a timely, efficient manner. The business will also be able to keep the clients updated about any new developments concerning the business. Communication goes beyond a business' clients. A business also needs to communicate with its employees, and computers play an important role. Rather than have time-wasting one-on-one meetings with employees, managers can simply email their employees or they can message them on any other acceptable communication platform. This saves time, and it also improves the internal communication of the business. Computers Are Used for Marketing: Computers allow a business to perform a variety of tasks. For starters, with the help of the internet, computers help put a business on the map. With a computer, a business’s team of IT developers can create a professional website complete with enticing graphics and content with different forms of media, such as text, images, and videos. They can do search engine optimization – SEO – for the website so that it appears prominently in Google’s search results, which then attracts traffic, which, ultimately, will enable the business to sell those products to website visitors. With a computer, a business can create and execute entire marketing campaigns that span across every social media platform on the internet. The business can create ads to run on websites and social media platforms, using special software, and it can also buy marketing services from other businesses – all connected to the internet. The computer is likely the greatest marketing device ever built! Computers Are Used for Accounting: Accounting is a function in which accuracy is of the utmost importance. When you perform accounting functions – and you have nothing except pen and paper - and you're relying solely on brain power, you expose yourself to errors. Accounting software helps prevent that from happening. Accounting software enables a business to quickly and accurately obtain large- and small-scale pictures of the company's financial situation. All the employees need to do is to input his financial information into the software and – with a few clicks – the employees understand everything about the financial health of the business' operations. Computers are also critical for tasks such as invoicing clients; maintaining data about debtors and creditors; calculating payroll, calculating and filing tax forms, as well as for a lot of other functions. With the computer, accountants can now focus on the higher level picture of a business’s finances, leaving the lower level stuff to the machines. Computers Are Used for Storage: Businesses have come a long way from the era of filing cabinets thanks to computers. Although a filing cabinet will occupy a very large space but will store only a small amount of information, a computer will occupy only a fraction of that space but it will store thousands of times the amount of information. With computers and servers, businesses are able to store and sort millions of files, to enable the business to access at any time. Computers also enable a business to store its data in different ways. The business could store the data in a central location, and it could have other computers on the network access the data whenever the business needs to; when the business has the permission to; or, when the business could store the data locally on individual computers. Not only is digital storage much larger than physical storage in terms of capacity, but it is also much more efficient because of the level of sorting that takes place, which is one of the greatest benefits of the computer. Digital storage is also more secure, as it is more difficult to lose or steal files from a well-protected database. Computers Are Used to Produce Documents: Most businesses will need to produce numerous documents, either in the form of written documents or spreadsheets. Computers provide word processors and spreadsheet software to help with this. With these two types of software, a business can generate virtually everything, from memos to letters to tutorials to reports to ads for the company’s services and products or company events. With spreadsheet applications, a business has the power to manipulate alphanumeric data and organize it into tables, charts, graphs, and reports. Another kind of software that businesses make use of is presentation software. With presentation software, a business can make slides for presentations, either internal ones or external ones meant for clients. Businesses can also make letters, memos, and reports, using word processing software, either for disbursement to the client or for internal use. In general, a computer has plenty of productivity software that a business can use to make its functions easier; this is software that enables a business to be much faster and more efficient that it was only 20 or 30 years ago. Computers Are Used for Educational Purposes: Computers can be used to educate employees. A business can use a computer to educate the employees on such things as the company policy, software use, as well as standard procedures and safety. Rather than hire teachers to teach its employees, a business can let employees learn what the employee needs, by learning at their own pace via webinars and live Q&A sessions. With the internet, a business' employees will have access to a world of information, and the business will not need to create all of its own educational content. Computers also enable employees to learn in a way that they enjoy. Employees can learn via different media, such as videos, text, and even games, enabling them to better understand the subject matter. Computers Are Used for Research: Computers allow a business to do a variety of things, including research about the competition, as well as what its customers want. With modern data- mining techniques, a business can acquire insightful information about its customers and competition from all kinds of places, including forums, search engines, industry-specific websites and even from social networks. Computer in Industry Manufacturing: Industrial computers are ideal for high volume manufacturing that transcends the limits of human labor. Industrial PCs with state-of-the-art configurations and highly robust physical forms are used in factories to create and assemble the components of complex equipment with perfect precision, and also run automated quality checks at very high speeds. Automobile and equipment manufacturing industries have greatly benefitted from the development of rugged and powerful industrial computers. Automated Production Systems: Today, computer-controlled robots are used to assemble cars. No doubt, these systems work faster than human beings. Another popular and efficient use for Online Examination: The trend of online examination is becoming popular. Different examination like GRE, GMAT and SAT are conducted online all over the world. The questions are marked by computer. It minimizes the chance of mistakes. It also enables to announce the result in time. Institute Administration: Computers are being used to perform many tasks in educational institutions, easily and quickly:  Keeping Records of students (admission records, attendance and leave records, fee collection, examination records of students)  Storing Records of employees (payroll, attendance, assignments, project) of school/college  Managing Accounts of the institution  Fees collection and maintenance of fees record.  Circulation of instruction/notices and getting it in printed form  Preparation of school/ college magazine, etc. with the help of Microsoft Word, popular word processing software. Faster data processing, speed is the main characteristics of a computer. Huge and organized Storage of information, vast storage is another main characteristic of a computer. Students and teachers can download and store large amounts of educational materials, books, presentations, lecture notes, question papers in computers. Computers can ensure Accuracy of teaching text materials, as many word processing application software provide Spelling and Grammar Checking Tools Audio-visual aids in teaching process for effective learning Attractive and Better presentation of information through applications software like Microsoft Power Point to develop brilliant presentations for lectures One of the main uses of computers in education is 'the Access to the Internet' for information search about any topic. Another advantage of using computers in education field is quicker communication between students, teachers and parents that improves quality of teaching and learning process. Parents can know the progress of their children through computers and internet, by browsing the website of the educational institute. They can check different examination results, attendance reports, curricular and co-curricular activities of their children. Computer in Entertainment In the initial stages when computers were invented, they started off as very simple machines with a sole purpose of storage and transfer of textual data and information. Computer’s functions were only left for office work before their massive transformation to all media and information they support nowadays. Currently, computers are very versatile and extra powerful despite their small sizes. Besides what they traditionally were meant to support, nowadays they are a very crucial tool for the entertainment sector. They have endless uses in the entertainment industry that they have developed fame and you can’t miss mentioning these machines whenever you talk about entertainment. So what are some of these top entertainment examples that computers have found their uses? Music: Nowadays computers have unlimited access to nearly watching movies all songs sung by different artists of the world. Nowadays you can download your songs directly to your laptop without much hustle from the internet in whatever format and listen on your machine via the many music players supported by the different computer Operating Systems. Some of the common players that support music are AIMP, VLC, port player, and many others. Videos, movies, and television: Computers can also support video encoding and display, making it swift for viewers and users to easily view any types of videos, i.e., videos of many different formats. They also can support programs that can encode DVB-T2 and different television encoding to help you use them as TVs. This is a huge plus because nowadays you don’t have to purchase a TV set when you have your laptop or desktop. Games: Just like the other forms of entertainment supported by computers, computer games are also not left behind. There are a lot of different computer games all designed to offer unique appeals. This is a huge plus since game creation is a whole new career by itself and some of the game lovers can never pass a day before having a match to pass their time. With the recent hardware modification, graphical support and design engines are at a whole new level and nowadays games are designed with very realistic graphics to resemble real-life events, something that any gamer will love. Art: Items of art are designs that have an extra appeal and are available playing games on computer online at all times. Examples of such items are pictures, pieces of poetry, ancient and modern paintings, animations, GIFs among many others. Many computer applications support these pieces of art in whatever formats. Users can also edit these pieces of art using most of these apps without much hustle. Computer in Science and Research Data, Mathematics and Data Detection: Computers interact with science in several specific ways. The first one is dealing with collecting and processing data. This is how the "Colossus" was used. Computers are also used in the field of mathematics. Calculations are done that would take humans more than one lifespan to complete. The computation of the digits of Pi is a good example. Finally, computers can be used as a method of detecting data. Computers can be used to detect events that would easily pass the notice of the human eye. High-speed photography can only be controlled with computer components and is a valuable asset. A computer can sample information billions of times a second, which allows for scientific detection that would otherwise be impossible. A pertinent example is the Large Hadron Collider; without computers and the time- sensitive components involved, it would not be possible to record the data. Automated Machines: Automated machines are machines that are controlled all or in part by a computer. Computer automation is used mostly by industry in factories. However, it is also useful in science. Machines can be used to run automated tests and complete simple tasks. One example of a machine used in science is the robotic arm that is used to handle radioactive samples. These robotic arms allow the scientist to safely handle and test a highly dangerous sample. Data Sharing: The Internet, which was developed by scientists in conjunction with the government, has advanced the progress of science in many ways. The first proof of the concept was shown in 1972 and, since then, it has allowed for the vast dissemination of ideas and information. The Internet allows for almost instantaneous sharing of data across any distance. This allows for easier collaboration with colleagues anywhere in the world. Data Manipulation: Computers allow us to manipulate the data that we gather in easier ways. Most people are accustomed to this aspect of computers through a word processing program. A word processor allows us to manipulate data in the form of words. Without computers, we might still be using typewriters. Data Collection: Scientists use computers to collect data and make hypotheses on the basis of collected data. Analysis and Testing of Data: Scientists use computers to analyze collected data and test their hypotheses. Exchanging Information: Scientists use computers to exchange information with their colleagues. Different Researches all over the world can share their research with one another. This will be helpful for research because this will increase the rate of completion of research projects. Simulation of Different Events: Scientists may use computers for simulation of complex events. For example, they can use computer simulation to predict about the effects of earthquake on buildings in a particular area. They may use computer simulation to know the effects of rapid population increase on weather conditions. In fact, computer simulation of such complex events will save time as well as cost. Computer simulation can also provide a feasible solution to many problems. Computer in Medicine/Medical Field Hospital Management System: Specialized hospital management software are used to automate the day to day procedures and operations at hospitals. These tasks may be online appointments, payroll admittance and discharge records etc. Patient History: Hospital management systems can store data about patients. Computers are used to store data about patients, their diseases & symptoms, the medicines that are prescribed. Patients Monitoring: Monitoring systems are installed in medical wards and Intensive care units to monitoring patients continuously. These systems can monitor pulse, blood pressure and body temperature and can alert medical staff about any serious situations. and genuine message received from a trusted source through a valid transmission. For example if take above example sender sends the message along with digital signature which was generated using the hash value of message and private key. Now at the receiver side this digital signature is decrypted using the public key generating a hash value and message is again hashed to generate the hash value. If the 2 value matches then it is known as valid transmission with the authentic or we say genuine message received at the recipient side  Accountability – means that it should be possible to trace actions of an entity uniquely to that entity. For example as we discussed in Integrity section Not every employee should be allowed to do changes in other employees data. For this there is a separate department in an organization that is responsible for making such changes and when they receive request for a change then that letter must be signed by higher authority for example Director of college and person that is allotted that change will be able to do change after verifying his bio metrics, thus timestamp with the user (doing changes) details get recorded. Thus we can say if a change goes like this then it will be possible to trace the actions uniquely to an entity. At the core of Information Security is Information Assurance, which means the act of maintaining CIA of information, ensuring that information is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise. These issues are not limited to natural disasters, computer/server malfunctions etc. Thus, the field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning etc. Types of InfoSec Application security - Application security is a broad topic that covers software vulnerabilities in web and mobile applications and application programming interfaces (APIs). These vulnerabilities may be found in authentication or authorization of users, integrity of code and configurations, and mature policies and procedures. Application vulnerabilities can create entry points for significant InfoSec breaches. Application security is an important part of perimeter defense for InfoSec. Cloud security - Cloud security focuses on building and hosting secure applications in cloud environments and securely consuming third-party cloud applications. “Cloud” simply means that the application is running in a shared environment. Businesses must make sure that there is adequate isolation between different processes in shared environments. Cryptography - Encrypting data in transit and data at rest helps ensure data confidentiality and integrity. Digital signatures are commonly used in cryptography to validate the authenticity of data. Cryptography and encryption has become increasingly important. A good example of cryptography use is the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). The AES is a symmetric key algorithm used to protect classified government information. Infrastructure security - Infrastructure security deals with the protection of internal and extranet networks, labs, data centers, servers, desktops, and mobile devices. Incident response - Incident response is the function that monitors for and investigates potentially malicious behavior. In preparation for breaches, IT staff should have an incident response plan for containing the threat and restoring the network. In addition, the plan should create a system to preserve evidence for forensic analysis and potential prosecution. This data can help prevent further breaches and help staff discover the attacker. Vulnerability management - Vulnerability management is the process of scanning an environment for weak points (such as unpatched software) and prioritizing remediation based on risk. In many networks, businesses are constantly adding applications, users, infrastructure, and so on. For this reason, it is important to constantly scan the network for potential vulnerabilities. Finding vulnerability in advance can save your businesses the catastrophic costs of a breach. Cyber crime Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is the crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Cybercrimes can be defined as: "Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm, or loss, to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (networks including chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (Bluetooth/SMS/MMS)". Cybercrime may threaten a person or a nation's security and financial health. Issues surrounding these types of crimes have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement, unwarranted mass-surveillance, sextortion, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Cybercrimes crossing international borders and involving the actions of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. Child pornography Child pornography means a photographic, film, video or other visual representation, whether or not it was made by electronic or mechanical means, that shows a person who is or is depicted as being under the age of eighteen years and is engaged in or is depicted as engaged in explicit sexual activity, or the dominant characteristic of which is the depiction, for a sexual purpose, of a sexual organ or the anal region of a person under the age of eighteen years. Cyberterrorism Cyberterrorism can be explained as internet terrorism. With the advent of the internet, individuals and groups are misusing the anonymity to threaten individuals, certain groups, religions, ethnicities or beliefs. Cyberterrorism can be broadly categorized under three major categories:  Simple: This consists of basic attacks including the hacking of an individual system.  Advanced: These are more sophisticated attacks and can involve hacking multiple systems and/or networks.  Complex: These are coordinated attacks that can have a large-scale impact and make use of sophisticated tools. Cyberterrorism is the use of the Internet to conduct violent acts that result in, or threaten, loss of life or significant bodily harm, in order to achieve political or ideological gains through threat or intimidation. It is also sometimes considered an act of Internet terrorism where terrorist activities, including acts of deliberate, large-scale disruption of computer networks, especially of personal computers attached to the Internet by means of tools such as computer viruses, computer worms, phishing, and other malicious software and hardware methods and programming scripts Hacking Hacking generally refers to unauthorized intrusion into a computer or a network. The person engaged in hacking activities is known as a hacker. This hacker may alter system or security features to accomplish a goal that differs from the original purpose of the system. Hacking can also refer to non-malicious activities, usually involving unusual or improvised alterations to equipment or processes. Example of Hacking: Using password cracking algorithm to gain access to a system A computer hacker is any skilled computer expert that uses their technical knowledge to overcome a problem. While "hacker" can refer to any skilled computer programmer, the term has become associated in popular culture with a "security hacker", someone who, with their technical knowledge, uses bugs or exploits to break into computer systems. Hackers are classified according to the intent of their actions. The following list classifies hackers according to their intent. Symbol Description Ethical Hacker (White hat): A hacker who gains access to systems with a view to fix the identified weaknesses. They may also perform penetration Testing and vulnerability assessments. Cracker (Black hat): A hacker who gains unauthorized access to computer systems for personal gain. The intent is usually to steal corporate data, violate privacy rights, transfer funds  Virus - A virus is a form of malware that is capable of copying itself and spreading to other computers. Viruses often spread to other computers by attaching themselves to various programs and executing code when a user launches one of those infected programs. Viruses can also spread through script files, documents, and cross-site scripting vulnerabilities in web apps. Viruses can be used to steal information, harm host computers and networks, create botnets, steal money, render advertisements, and more. For example, a virus might infect program files on a USB stick. When the programs on that USB stick are run on another computer, the virus runs on the other computer and infects more program files. The virus will continue to spread in this way.  Bot - Bots are software programs created to automatically perform specific operations. While some bots are created for relatively harmless purposes (video gaming, internet auctions, online contests etc.), it is becoming increasingly common to see bots being used maliciously. Bots can be used in botnets (collections of computers to be controlled by third parties) for DDoS attacks, as spambots that render advertisements on websites, as web spiders that scrape server data, and for distributing malware disguised as popular search items on download sites. Websites can guard against bots with CAPTCHA tests that verify users as human.  Bug - In the context of software, a bug is a flaw produces an undesired outcome. These flaws are usually the result of human error and typically exist in the source code or compilers of a program. Minor bugs only slightly affect a program’s behavior and as a result can go for long periods of time before being discovered. More significant bugs can cause crashing or freezing. Security bugs are the most severe type of bugs and can allow attackers to bypass user authentication, override access privileges, or steal data. Bugs can be prevented with developer education, quality control, and code analysis tools.  Ransomware - Ransomware is a form of malware that essentially holds a computer system captive while demanding a ransom. The malware restricts user access to the computer either by encrypting files on the hard drive or locking down the system and displaying messages that are intended to force the user to pay the malware creator to remove the restrictions and regain access to their computer. Ransomware typically spreads like a normal computer worm (see below) ending up on a computer via a downloaded file or through some other vulnerability in a network service.  Rootkit - A rootkit is a type of malicious software designed to remotely access or control a computer without being detected by users or security programs. Once a rootkit has been installed it is possible for the malicious party behind the rootkit to remotely execute files, access/steal information, modify system configurations, alter software (especially any security software that could detect the rootkit), install concealed malware, or control the computer as part of a botnet. Rootkit prevention, detection, and removal can be difficult due to their stealthy operation. Because a rootkit continually hides its presence, typical security products are not effective in detecting and removing rootkits. As a result, rootkit detection relies on manual methods such as monitoring computer behavior for irregular activity, signature scanning, and storage dump analysis. Organizations and users can protect themselves from rootkits by regularly patching vulnerabilities in software, applications, and operating systems, updating virus definitions, avoiding suspicious downloads, and performing static analysis scans.  Spyware - Spyware is a type of malware that functions by spying on user activity without their knowledge. These spying capabilities can include activity monitoring, collecting keystrokes, data harvesting (account information, logins, financial data), and more. Spyware often has additional capabilities as well, ranging from modifying security settings of software or browsers to interfering with network connections. Spyware spreads by exploiting software vulnerabilities, bundling itself with legitimate software, or in Trojans.  Trojan Horse - A Trojan horse, commonly known as a “Trojan,” is a type of malware that disguises itself as a normal file or program to trick users into downloading and installing malware. A Trojan can give a malicious party remote access to an infected computer. Once an attacker has access to an infected computer, it is possible for the attacker to steal data (logins, financial data, and even electronic money), install more malware, modify files, monitor user activity (screen watching, keylogging, etc.), use the computer in botnets, and anonymize internet activity by the attacker.  Worm - Computer worms are among the most common types of malware. They spread over computer networks by exploiting operating system vulnerabilities. Worms typically cause harm to their host networks by consuming bandwidth and overloading web servers. Computer worms can also contain “payloads” that damage host computers. Payloads are pieces of code written to perform actions on affected computers beyond simply spreading the worm. Payloads are commonly designed to steal data, delete files, or create botnets. Computer worms can be classified as a type of computer virus, but there are several characteristics that distinguish computer worms from regular viruses. A major difference is that computer worms have the ability to self-replicate and spread independently while viruses rely on human activity to spread (running a program, opening a file, etc.). Worms often spread by sending mass emails with infected attachments to users’ contacts.  Keylogger - A keylogger is a type of malware that runs in the background, recording every key stroke you make. These keystrokes can include usernames, passwords, credit card numbers, and other sensitive data. The keylogger then, most likely, uploads these keystrokes to a malicious server, where it can be analyzed and people can pick out the useful passwords and credit card numbers. Other types of malware can act as keyloggers. A virus, worm, or Trojan may function as a keylogger, for example. Keyloggers may also be installed for monitoring purposes by businesses or even jealous spouses. Data Diddling Data Diddling is unauthorized altering of data before or during entry into a computer system, and then changing it back after processing is done. Using this technique, the attacker may modify the expected output and is difficult to track. In other words, the original information to be entered is changed, either by a person typing in the data, a virus that’s programmed to change the data, the programmer of the database or application, or anyone else involved in the process of creating, recording, encoding, examining, checking, converting or transmitting data. Logic bomb A logic bomb is a malicious program timed to cause harm at a certain point in time, but is inactive up until that point. A set trigger, such as a preprogrammed date and time, activates a logic bomb. Once activated, a logic bomb implements a malicious code that causes harm to a computer. A logic bomb's application programming points may also include other variables such that the bomb is launched after a specific number of database entries. However, computer security experts believe that certain gaps of action may launch a logic bomb as well, and that these types of logic bombs may actually cause the greatest harm. A logic bomb may be implemented by someone trying to sabotage a database when they are fairly certain they won’t be present to experience the effects, such as full database deletion. In these instances, logic bombs are programmed to exact revenge or sabotage work. A logic bomb is also known as slag code or malicious logic. DoS attack In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) is a cyber-attack in which the perpetrator seeks to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users by temporarily or indefinitely disrupting services of a host connected to the Internet. Denial of service is typically accomplished by flooding the targeted machine or resource with superfluous requests in an attempt to overload systems and prevent some or all legitimate requests from being fulfilled. In a distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack), the incoming traffic flooding the victim originates from many different sources. This effectively makes it impossible to stop the attack simply by blocking a single source. A DoS or DDoS attack is analogous to a group of people crowding the entry door of a shop, making it hard for legitimate customers to enter, disrupting trade. Criminal perpetrators of DoS attacks often target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks or credit card payment gateways. Revenge, blackmail and activism can motivate these attacks. Fraud Computer fraud is the use of computers, the Internet, Internet devices, and Internet services to defraud people or organizations of resources. Illegal computer activities include phishing, social engineering, viruses, and DDoS attacks are some examples used to disrupt service or gain access to another's funds. Internet fraud means trying to trick or scam someone else using the Internet. This usually means that the person who is being tricked loses money to the people scamming them. Internet fraud can take place on computer programs such as chat rooms, e-mail, message boards, or Web sites. Advertisements that pop up on the internet have a big risk of being scams. Identity theft Identity theft is the deliberate use of someone else's identity, usually as a method to gain a financial advantage or obtain credit and other benefits in the other person's name, and perhaps to the other person's disadvantage or loss. The person whose identity has been assumed may suffer adverse consequences, especially if they are held responsible for the perpetrator's actions. Identity theft occurs when someone uses another's personally identifying information, like their name, identifying number, or credit card number, without their permission, to commit fraud or other crimes. The term identity theft was coined in 1964. Since that time, the definition of identity sharing of confidential information with others might help reduce the chances of an attack by this method. Unauthorized access Unauthorized access is when someone gains access to a website, program, server, service, or other system using someone else's account or other methods. For example, if someone kept guessing a password or username for an account that was not theirs until they gained access it is considered unauthorized access. Unauthorized access could also occur if a user attempts to access an area of a system they should not be accessing. When attempting to access that area, they would be denied access and possibly see an unauthorized access message. Some system administrators set up alerts to let them know when there is an unauthorized access attempt, so that they may investigate the reason. These alerts can help stop hackers from gaining access to a secure or confidential system. Many secure systems may also lock an account that has had too many failed login attempts. Software piracy Software piracy is the stealing of legally protected software. Under copyright law, software piracy occurs when copyright protected software is copied, distributed, modified or sold. Software piracy is considered direct copyright infringement when it denies copyright holders due compensation for use of their creative works. Software piracy penalties apply to users that illegally reproduce copyrighted works and/or users who are knowingly in possession of illegally reproduced works. Unknowingly accepting pirated software is another scenario, provided it can be proven. End users may notice red flags, which indicate pirated software, especially if the acquired digital media is encased in inconspicuous or generic containers, such as CD sleeves or unnamed disk packaging.  Software Counterfeiting: A type of software piracy that occurs when fake copies of software are produced in such a way that they appear to be authentic. Counterfeit software would include the illegal copying and distribution of commercial software on CD or DVD along with any accompanying manuals that the original legitimate software was sold with. Counterfeit software is commonly produced using a CD burner to copy the software and photocopies are made of the manual. Counterfeit software is usually sold at prices well below that of the retail price of the legitimate software.  OEM unbundling: Original equipment manufacturer unbundling (OEM unbundling) involves dissembling the major components of the bundled software that usually accompanies OEM hardware. Software can be sold in conjunction with hardware. When it is, a notification to the consumer or retailer is present (a user license), explaining that the software is only to be used with the packaged hardware. Of course, the software may be installed on other machines, but this is a form of software piracy. OEM unbundling may also be known as softlifting, although this term refers to a wider range of activities.  Softlifting: Softlifting is the act of purchasing a single copy of software and then downloading is installing it onto more than one computer, despite agreement terms stating the software must only be used once or by a single user only. Softlifting does not involve selling copies of protected creative works. Rather, it occurs when an individual or organization distributes copies to friends, colleagues or others. Softlifting is considered to be the most common form of software piracy. This term is also known as softloading or end-user piracy.  Internet software piracy: Internet software piracy refers to any illegal and/or unauthorized use of electronic copyrighted materials through deliberate copying and/or distribution, whether deliberately or not, or for profit/not for profit. Peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing systems are the primary culprit in Internet software piracy. Counterfeit software sold through online auction sites is another form of Internet software piracy. Internet software piracy occurs any time the Internet is used for the express purposes of selling, sharing or otherwise acquiring protected creative works.  Hard Disk Loading: A type of software piracy that occurs when hardware dealers; brick-and- mortar or Internet vendors, install an unauthorized copy of commercial software onto a computer system. In many cases consumers will not receive any manuals or original CD of the software but the hardware dealer may charge for the illegal software in the total system purchase price. The end-user or the purchaser in this case, will then use the computer system with pirated software, often not realizing that the software that was pre-installed on the computer system is not legitimate. This type of piracy is most common with operating systems Cyber law Cyber law is the area of law that deals with the Internet's relationship to technological and electronic elements, including computers, software, hardware and information systems (IS). Cyber law is the part of the overall legal system that deals with the Internet, cyberspace, and their respective legal issues. Cyber law covers a fairly broad area, encompassing several subtopics including freedom of expression, access to and usage of the Internet, and online privacy. Generically, cyber law has been referred to as the Law of the Internet. Different countries have different cyber laws and cyber laws regulating bodies. In Nepal cyber law is called as Electronic Transaction Act (ETA) 2063, which was passed in 2004. The law deals with issues related to digital signature, intellectual property, cybercrime, etc. The Act is dived into 12 sections and 80 clauses. This law keeps an eyeball on issues which are related to computer networks and cybercrime. It brings cyber criminals under the justice of law and penalizes them just like other crimes. As per the Act, if anyone is found violating cybercrime, he/she will be punished for a minimum of 6 months to a maximum of 3 years in jail and has to pay minimum 50 thousands to maximum 3 lakhs as a penalty. NETWORK SECURITY Network security is the security provided to a network from unauthorized access and risks. Network security is an organization’s strategy that enables guaranteeing the security of its assets including all network traffic. It includes both software and hardware technologies. Access to the network is managed by effective network security, which targets a wide range of threats and then arrests them from spreading or entering in the network. Network security is an integration of multiple layers of defenses in the network and at the network. Policies and controls are implemented by each network security layer. Access to networks is gained by authorized users, whereas, malicious actors are indeed blocked from executing threats and exploits. Types of Network Security  Antivirus and Antimalware Software: This software is used for protecting against malware, which includes spyware, ransomware, Trojans, worms, and viruses. Malware can also become very dangerous as it can infect a network and then remain calm for days or even weeks. This software handles this threat by scanning for malware entry and regularly tracks files afterward in order to detect anomalies, remove malware, and fix damage.  Application Security: It is important to have an application security since no app is created perfectly. It is possible for any application to comprise of vulnerabilities, or holes, that are used by attackers to enter your network. Application security thus encompasses the software, hardware, and processes you select for closing those holes.  Behavioral Analytics: In order to detect abnormal network behavior, you will have to know what normal behavior looks like. Behavioral analytics tools are capable of automatically discerning activities that deviate from the norm. Your security team will thus be able to efficiently detect indicators of compromise that pose a potential problem and rapidly remediate threats.  Data Loss Prevention (DLP): Organizations should guarantee that their staff does not send sensitive information outside the network. They should thus use DLP technologies, network security measures, which prevent people from uploading, forwarding, or even printing vital information in an unsafe manner.  Email Security: Email gateways are considered to be the number one threat vector for a security breach. Attackers use social engineering tactics and personal information in order to build refined phishing campaigns to deceive recipients and then send them to sites serving up malware. An email security application is capable of blocking incoming attacks and controlling outbound messages in order to prevent the loss of sensitive data.  Firewalls: Firewalls place a barrier between your trusted internal network and untrusted outside networks, like the Internet. A set of defined rules are employed to block or allow traffic. A firewall can be software, hardware, or both. The free firewall efficiently manages role, and more so that the right people get the correct level of access and suspicious devices are thus contained and remediated.  Security Information and Event Management (SIEM): SIEM products bring together all the information needed by your security staff in order to identify and respond to threats. These products are available in different forms, including virtual and physical appliances and server software.  Virtual Private Network (VPN): A VPN is another type of network security capable of encrypting the connection from an endpoint to a network, mostly over the Internet. A remote- access VPN typically uses IPsec or Secure Sockets Layer in order to authenticate the communication between network and device.  Web Security: A perfect web security solution will help in controlling your staff’s web use, denying access to malicious websites, and blocking  Wireless Security: The mobile office movement is presently gaining momentum along with wireless networks and access points. However, wireless networks are not as secure as wired ones and this makes way for hackers to enter. It is thus essential for the wireless security to be strong. It should be noted that without stringent security measures installing a wireless LAN could be like placing Ethernet ports everywhere. Products specifically designed for protecting a wireless network will have to be used in order to prevent an exploit from taking place.  Endpoint Security: Endpoint Security, also known Endpoint Protection or Network Security, is a methodology used for protecting corporate networks when accessed through remote devices such as laptops or several other wireless devices and mobile devices. For instance, Comodo Advanced Endpoint Protection software presents seven layers of defense that include viruscope, file reputation, auto-sandbox, host intrusion prevention, web URL filtering, firewall, and antivirus software. All this is offered under a single offering in order to protect them from both unknown and known threats.  Network Access Control (NAC): This network security process helps you to control who can access your network. It is essential to recognize each device and user in order to keep out potential attackers. This indeed will help you to enforce your security policies. Noncompliant endpoint devices can be given only limited access or just blocked. Information Privacy Information privacy is the privacy of personal information and usually relates to personal data stored on computer systems. The need to maintain information privacy is applicable to collected personal information, such as medical records, financial data, criminal records, political records, business related information or website data. Information privacy is also known as data privacy. Information privacy is considered an important aspect of information sharing. With the advancement of the digital age, personal information vulnerabilities have increased. Information privacy may be applied in numerous ways, including encryption, authentication and data masking - each attempting to ensure that information is available only to those with authorized access. These protective measures are geared toward preventing data mining and the unauthorized use of personal information, which are illegal in many parts of the world. Information privacy relates to different data types, including: Internet privacy (online privacy): All personal data shared over the Internet is subject to privacy issues. Most websites publish a privacy policy that details the website's intended use of collected online and/or offline collected data. Financial privacy: Financial information is particularly sensitive, as it may be easily used to commit online and/or offline fraud. Medical privacy: All medical records are subject to stringent laws that address user access privileges. By law, security and authentication systems are often required for individuals that process and store medical records.