Memory Processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval, Exams of Nursing

Download Memory Processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 237 CHAPTER 6 MEMORY PROCESSES OUTLINE FOR CHAPTER 6 238 SUPPLEMENTAL ACTIVITIES 241 A. In-Class Activities 1. Illustrating Encoding and Bringing the Class Together 2. Your Cheatin’ Heart—Proactive and Retroactive Interference Can Mess Up Your Love Life 3. False Memory B. Promoting Discussion 1. Autobiographical Memory Exercise 2. Metacognition – Judgment of Learning COGLAB ANSWERS 246 Brown-Peterson False Memory Serial Position Sternberg Search Von Restorff Effect Encoding Specificity Forgot It All Along Remember/Know USEFUL WEBSITES 274 TEST BANK 275 OUTLINE FOR CHAPTER 6 I. INTRODUCTION A. Encoding CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 238 B. Storage C. Retrieval II. ENCODING AND TRANSFER OF INFORMATION A. Forms of Encoding 1. Short-Term Storage a. Acoustic code b. Semantic code c. Visual code 2. Long-Term Storage a. Semantic b. Visual c. Acoustic B. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long- Term Memory 1. Loss of Information a. Interference b. Decay 2. Transfer a. Attention b. Consolidation c. Metacognition i. metamemory 3. Rehearsal a. Practice effects i. overtii. covert b. Elaborative rehearsal c. Maintenance rehearsal d. Spacing effect i. distributed practice ii. massed practice e. REM sleep f. Neuroscience and memory consolidation i. hippocampus activation during sleep ii. reconsolidation 4. Organization of Information and use of Memory Aids a. Mnemonics i. categorical clusteringii. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 241 SUPPLEMENTAL ACTIVITIES A. In-Class Activities 1. Illustrating Encoding and Bringing the Class Together Steven Smith (1985) suggests an innovative classroom exercise that illustrates the use of mnemonic devices, and also brings the class together by enabling students to learn their classmates’ names. Begin by asking students to think of a creative mnemonic that will help their classmates remember their name. Note that the best mnemonics are based on a person’s appearance—when someone encounters someone else, this “retrieval cue” is always present. For example, Smith points out to his class that his bushy beard often reminds people of the coughdrop magnates, the Smith Brothers. Furthermore, he points out that when you have a cold, and if you lack a handkerchief, you may need to make discrete use of your sleeve; hence, by looking at him, people can remember that his name is Steve Smith. It is not always easy to come up with a creative mnemonic, so Smith suggests having the students break into brainstorming groups of four or five students. While they are working, wander from group to group (getting to know the names yourself, if you don’t already!) and offering your input. It should take around 5 to 10 minutes to complete the group work, and each student should have a mnemonic to go with her or his name. Reassemble the class and invite everyone to come to the front of the room one at a time, write their name on the board, give a bit of biographical information, and then explain the mnemonic. When this is done, invite a volunteer to come to the front of the room and identify as many people as she or he can. Smith reports that in a class of 64 students, his volunteers have been able to identify about 80% (roughly 50 students!) without any help from classmates. Written by Nancy Jo Melucci, Santa Monica College 2. Your Cheatin’ Heart—Proactive and Retroactive Interference Can Mess Up Your Love Life. Another way to make the two types of interference vivid to students is to bring to mind some vivid real-life examples of how they work. Interference of both types, for example, is at work when a family member means to call for a sibling (or any other member) and calls one or two other family member’s names, and maybe even the dog’s, before finally producing the correct one. You can create a dramatic and familiar moment for the students by asking them to close their eyes and imagine that the following (proactive interference) scenario: Pretend that you are recently out of a long-term relationship but you have found a new flame. Now you are out on that all-important third date with your new love interest. The lights CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 242 are low, the drinks and oysters are served. The music in the restaurant is soft and romantic— you are reaching across the table and taking your date’s hand. Now you are looking deeply into his or her eyes, about to tell them what a wonderful evening it is and how happy you are to be with him or her, and then out of your mouth, before you realize it, comes the name…of your ex. Usually this story gets a lot of laughter of recognition, and you can close by saying that running out of the restaurant, oysters on your head and clothes, yelling, “But honey! It was just proactive interference, that’s all!” isn’t going to get you back to first base in the near future. Some students will perhaps propose the “unconscious wish” explanation—you really wanted to be with your ex, and so you said that person’s name instead. And of course, there is no way to completely rule this out, but you can counter with the example of being at a new job, picking up the phone and answering with the name of the company for which you used to work. You can be very happy at your new job, but the fact is that memory is a biological process, and that the connections for the name of your old job are well established. It is easy to make the slip without any intent. Then follow with the retroactive version. You’ve been sneaking around on your steady flame for a couple of months. One day, while talking to your significant other in some casual context, you address them by the name of your secret amour. New information has interfered with your recall of older information. What happens next in this scenario, depends on what your steady knows about the other person and how creative a liar you are when working fast “on your feet.” Written by Nancy Jo Melucci, Santa Monica College 3. False Memory Psychologists have done significant work in the area of false memory; some believe that schema-based remembering leads to false memory. In the following activity, when the reader presents the following list of words to a friend, see if it is likely that he or she will falsely remember that “sleep” was on the list. List: bed rest awake tired dream wake snooze blanket doze slumber snore nap yawn drowsy This example is modeled after a laboratory paradigm developed by Roediger and McDermott (1995) to study false memory. The false memory phenomenon produced by this paradigm is so reliable and so provocative that you might like to try it as an in-class demonstration. Before you do, you should be aware, however, that it only works when participants are uninformed about its purpose. Since there is a possibility that some of your CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 243 students will have read this section of the text before you perform the demonstration, ask for their cooperation and ask that they do not inform others of the expected finding. Roediger and McDermott's technique is to present short lists of words to their participants with a memory test following each list. Each list consists of fifteen words that have a common associate. The common associate for each list is not presented. When they test their participants' memory for the lists, they find that there is a strong tendency to recall the common associate for each list, despite the fact that it was not presented in the list. Five of Roediger and McDermott's lists are on the next page. The common associate for each list appears at the top of each list. Read each list (not including the common associate) to your students at a rate of about one word every 1.5 seconds. At the end of each list, pause so that your students can write down as many of the words from that list as they can. When you have gone through all six lists, ask your students how many of the common associates they recalled. You should find that they recalled a large number; Roediger and McDermott found that their participants recalled about 40% of common associates. When you discuss this phenomenon with your students, you should point out that it provides another illustration of how people sometimes remember events that never happened. You might also provide your students with what appears to be a reasonable explanation. Roediger and McDermott suggest in this case that there is a strong tendency for the items on each list to elicit the common associate as the list items are presented. At some point the participant is no longer able distinguish between the items that have been presented and the items that have been internally generated. You might conclude the discussion by asking your students if they can provide their own examples of false memory. Written by Charles Grah, Austin Peay State University and Gregory Robinson-Riegler, University of St. Thomas at St. Paul Memory Lists: Chair Foot Girl Anger Cold table shoe boy Mad hot sit hand dolls Fear snow legs toe female Hate warm seat kick young Rage winter couch sandals dress Temper ice desk soccer pretty Fury wet recliner yard hair Ire frigid sofa walk niece Wrath chilly wood ankle dance Happy heat cushion arm beautiful Fight weather swivel boot cute Hatred freeze CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 246 COGLAB - BROWN-PETERSON - Student Manual Answers Basic Questions 1. In the Peterson and Peterson (1959) study, what was equivalent to the word non-word distractor task used in this demonstration? Algebraic computations were used as the distractor task. 2. At what distractor duration was your performance best? What duration was your performance the worst? Participants usually do best with the shortest distractor duration (one second) and worst with the longest distractor duration (twenty-one seconds). 3. What is the function of the distractor task in the Brown-Peterson paradigm? In a memory task participants will typically rehearse the item that they will need to recall. The distractor task prevents participants from rehearsing the target item. 4. To what was the Brown-Peterson data attributed? The Brown-Peterson data was attributed to the decay of information from short term memory. If an individual does not actively rehearse information then that information decays from short term memory within a few seconds. Advanced Questions 1. Using your personal data, at would distractor duration would you predict your recall performance to be approximately 15%? The answer for this question will vary with each participant. Participants should calculate the slope of the line between their data point that has a distractor duration of eleven seconds and the one that has a distractor duration of twenty-one seconds. The slope can be calculated by CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 247 finding the change in percent correct divided by the change in distractor duration. The slope can be used to approximate the distractor duration that would result in a recall performance of 15%. 2. Utilizing your understanding of the Brown-Peterson data, what type of environment would you suggest for someone trying to learn new material? According to the findings of Brown-Peterson, information decays from memory in a matter of a few seconds if it is not rehearsed. A person trying to learn new material will want to be in an environment that is free of distractions. Distractions impair one’s ability to rehearse information, and therefore much of the information the individual takes in will fade away before it can be entered into long term memory. 3. Do you or anyone you know like to study with the television or the radio on? Now that you have done this experiment, what do you think about this practice? Explain Studying with the television or the radio on is not a good idea. Distracting information, especially verbal information, makes the rehearsal of information less efficient. Furthermore, information from the television and the radio will enter your short term memory along with the information you are studying making it even more difficult to effectively learn your study information. Discussion Question 1. Other than the explanation given in Basic Question # 4, what else could have explained the data? Work conducted after the initial Brown-Peterson findings have suggested a much different interpretation of the Brown-Peterson data. Most psychologists now believe that the main cause of the change in performance seen in the Brown-Peterson experiments was due to proactive interference rather than decay from short term memory. Examination of the data trial by trial from experiments similar to those done by Brown-Peterson showed that interference from trials early in the experiment were impairing a participant’s performance on trials presented later in the experiment. Test Bank Answers Multiple Choice Questions 1. What was the independent variable in the Brown-Peterson demonstration? a. The type of trigram used b. The duration of the letter string classification task CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 248 c. The time from the offset of the trigram to the onset of the letter string classification task d. None of the above Answer: b. 2. How long is information stored in short-term memory before it fades away? a. One second b. Five seconds c. Twenty seconds d. Forty seconds Answer: c. 3. For which distractor duration does the Brown-Peterson demonstration predict the best recall ofthe trigram? a. One second b. Eleven seconds c. Twenty-one seconds d. Recall performance will be similar for all distractor durations Answer: a. 4. What can you do prevent information from decaying from short-term memory? a. Think about something totally unrelated to the information b. Actively rehearse the information c. Go to sleep d. None of the above Answer: b. 5. Short-term memory is distinguished from long-term memory by … a. its capacity. b. its retention duration. c. Neither a. or b. d. Both a. and b. Answer: d. True/False Questions 1. ___ In the Brown-Peterson demonstration, a participant is asked to classify a string of letters as a word or non-word between the presentation of the trigram and the recall test to prevent rehearsal of the trigram. Answer: True CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 251 Experiments on false memory show that memory is malleable. A witness’s confidence in their account of what happened is not a predictor of its accuracy. Eyewitness accounts are used heavily in the American justice system, but we need to keep in mind that these accounts may not be accurate. An eyewitness’s account of an event is affected by the event’s context, the witness’s general knowledge, interference from the witness’s other memories, and information that was added each time the witness gave their account of the event. Test Bank Answers Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following best describes a person’s memory for any given event? a. It is easily influenced by contextual information b. It is always very inaccurate c. It is always very accurate d. Its accuracy can be predicted by the person’s confidence in it Answer: a. 2. An individual is undergoing therapy under the guidance of a psychiatrist. After weeks of discussing their unhappy childhood the individual begins to experience flashbacks of instances of intense ridicule from other children when she was young. The psychiatrist later finds out that these instances never actually occurred. This individual was experiencing a ________. a. repressed memory b. recovered memory c. false memory d. None of the above Answer: c. 3. According to the predictions of the false memory demonstration, how often should participantsremember the special/related distractors. a. Rarely b. more often than the normal distractors c. less often than the normal distractors d. Never Answer: b. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 252 4. If you were given the words jog, gallop, sprint, jump, track, chase, and escape and asked to remember them, which of the following words would you be most likely to falsely remember? a. River b. Cat c. Happy d. Run Answer: d. 5. The accuracy of a person’s memory can be determined by … a. how confident the person of the memory. b. how vivid the person’s memory is. c. how long the memory had been repressed. d. None of the above Answer: d. True/False Question 1. ___ The vividness of a memory can be used as an indicator of the memories accuracy. Answer: False Short Answer Question 1. What is the difference between a false memory and a recovered memory? A false memory is fabricated by an individual and is often due to prompting from another source. A recovered memory is the recall of an event that did occur but of which the individual was previously unaware. Essay Question 1. What is a false memory? In the false memory demonstration, why do participants often report they saw the special/related distractor? This essay is worth 5 points. Point 1: A false memory is fabricated by and individual and is often due to prompting from another source. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 253 Points 2 & 3: In the false memory demonstration, participants likely thought of the related distractor even though it was not presented because it was related to the words that were presented. Points 4 & 5: When participants are asked if the remembered the related distractor they often remember thinking about the related distractor even though they didn’t see it. Thinking about the related distractor during the presentation of actual word lists seems to be enough to convince participants that the related distractor was also presented. - SERIAL POSITION - Student Manual Answers Basic Questions 1. What is the primacy effect? Does your data show a primacy effect? Why or why not? In a free recall task items that are presented early in the list are often remembered much better than items in the middle of the list. This benefit in recall for the early items in the list is called the primacy effect. A participant shows the primacy effect if they have a higher percent recall for the early items in the list as compared to the items in the middle of the list. 2. What is the recency effect? Does your data show a recency effect? Why or why not?In a free recall task items that are presented at the end of the list are often remembered much better than items in the middle of the list. This benefit in recall for the late items in the list is called the recency effect. A participant shows the recency effect if they have a higher percent recall for the items at the end of the list as compared to the items in the middle of the list. 3. Serial position experiments typically have subjects use free recall during the test phase. What is free recall in this context? Free recall is a reporting procedure where participants report all of the items they can remember from a list of previously given items. The accuracy of the participant’s recall depends only on the reporting of a list items and does not require that the items be recalled in any specific order. Advanced Questions 1. If this demonstration added two items at the end of the ten item list, based on the typical serial position effects, how would the longer list change your recall of the early list CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 256 Answer: d. 4. In a serial position experiment, typically the first few items on the list are remembered fairly well. What is this called? a. Recency effect b. Primacy effect c. Free-recall effect d. Ordered-recall effect Answer: b. 5. In a serial position experiment, typically the last few items on the list are remembered fairly well. What is this called? a. Recency effect b. Primacy effect c. Free-recall effect d. Ordered recall effect Answer: a. True/False Question 1. ___ In a serial recall experiment, recency and primacy effects are limited to situations when the items are recalled shortly (within a few days) after their presentation. Answer: False Short Answer Question 1. How does a participant’s recall output strategy affect their serial position demonstration results? During recall, if a participant reports the last few items on the list first they will usually have a large recency effect. If a participant reports the first few items on the list first they will usually have a large primacy effect. If a participant reports the middle list items first they will usually show better performance on those items than they would if they used a different output strategy. Essay Question 1. Describe the typical finding of a serial recall experiment. How can interference be used to explain these findings? This essay is worth 6 points. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 257 Points 1: In a serial recall experiment, participants usually recall the first few items and thelast few items in the list fairly well, while the items in the middle of the list are not recalled as well. Points 2 & 3: Proactive interference occurs when past information interferes with newer information. Recall of the last few items in the list is impaired by proactive interference. Points 4 & 5: Retroactive interference occurs when newer information interferes with older information. Recall of the first few items in the list is impaired by retroactive interference. Point 6: Items in the middle of the list are impaired by proactive and retroactive interference and therefore at not recalled as often as early and late list items. - STERNBERG SEARCH - Student Manual Answers Basic Questions 1. What is the relationship between memory set size and reaction time in a typical Sternberg Search task? There is a positive linear relationship between memory set size and reaction time. The larger the memory set the longer it takes a participant to make a response. 2. What is a self-terminating search? What is an exhaustive search? A self-terminating search is a search that is ended once the target item is found. An exhaustive search is a search through the entire set of possible items regardless of whether the target item is found or not. 3. Is your personal data consistent with Sternberg’s findings? Explain. A participant’s personal data is consistent with Sternberg’s findings if they show a positive linear relationship between memory set and reaction time. Furthermore, a participant would also have a data curve for target present trials that is parallel to their data curve for target absent trials. Advanced Questions 1. Does your data support an exhaustive STM memory search or a self-terminating STM search? Why? CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 258 If your data curves for the target present trials and the target absent trials are parallel, then your data supports an exhaustive STM memory search. If your curves are parallel, your reaction times in the target present trials and target absent trials are similar. Therefore, you are searching through all of the items in your memory set regardless of whether or not you have already found the target. If your data curves for the target present trials and the target absent trials diverge, then your data supports a self-terminating STM search. If your curves diverge, your reaction times in the target present trials and the target absent trials are different, therefore you are only searching through the items in your memory set until you find the target. 2. Use your data to predict your reaction time for a memory set of seven items for a probe present and a probe absent response. Answers will vary. Most participants should show a linear relationship between memory set size and reaction time, therefore they use the slope of their data curve to estimate their performance for a memory set size of seven items. One’s slope can be calculated by finding the change in reaction time between two data points and dividing it by the change in memory set for those same two data points. 3. What does it mean to say there is a linear relationship between two variables? Would youclassify the relationship between memory set and reaction time from your personal data as linear? Two variables have a linear relationship if their points on a data plot fall on a straight line and the line can be described by the equation y= ax + b. In other words, for every change in one variable there is a constant change in the other variable. Discussion Question 1. Do you think it is to our advantage that we use an exhaustive search of short-term memory as opposed to a self-terminating search? Why or why not? An argument can be made for both sides of this issue. One could argue that a self-terminating search would be more efficient because we would not need to waste time searching through items after the item being searched for has been found. On the other hand one could argue that an exhaustive search is best. Our search of STM is quite fast, it only takes a few hundred milliseconds, and it might take longer to stop the search process and make a response than it does to let the search process run to completion and make a response. Test Bank Answers Multiple Choice Questions CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 261 2. What was done in the experimental trials of this demonstration to distinguish one of the list items from the others? For some trials in this demonstration, the letter in the sixth position of the list was shown in red instead of black. All of the other letters were always shown in black. 3. Excluding the distinctive list item, for which two items do you show the highest recall? Why might this have been the case? Answers will vary. Typically participants will show a primacy effect, where items at the beginning of the list are recalled more often than items in the middle of the list. Participants will also often show a recency effect, where items at the end of the list are recalled more often than items in the middle of the list. One explanation for the primacy and recency effect is that one’s memory for the items in the middle of the list is impaired by proactive and retroactive interference, while one’s memory for the items at the beginning of the list is only impaired by retroactive interference and one’s memory for the items at the end of the list only suffers from proactive interference. Advanced Questions 1. In this demonstration, some of the trials had one list item that stood out from the other list items because it had a feature that was unique. This item is typically remembered with a higher frequency than its matched control, and is called the Von Restorff Effect. What do you think would happen to this effect if two of the list items shared this distinctive feature instead of one? The Von Restorff Effect may still be observed, but it would likely be reduced in size. The red color is not as distinct when it is shared by two of the items in the list as it is when only one of the list items is red. The distinctiveness of the list item is what made the item more likely to be recalled during test and if the distinctiveness of the item is reduced then ones recall of that list item will also be reduced. 2. You’ve just started a new job and on the first day you’ve been told you’re going to meet twelve of the company’s employees, one of whom is your new supervisor. Using what you’ve learned about the Von Restorff Effect, what can you do to make sure you remember your new supervisor’s name? When you meet your boss you need to do something out of the ordinary with his/her name and it needs to be something that you did not do with the names of the other people you have met. For example, you could put your boss’s name in a song that you know well and sing it to yourself or you could associate/incorporate your boss’s name with/into the name of the company where you work. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 262 3. You’re a sports agent and your new client will be competing in an open tryout in front of professional scouts. Your client is a good athlete but not well known. What advice would you give to your client help him/her get noticed during the tryout? One would want to advise their client to be distinctive, to make sure they stand out in the crowd. This could be done if your client made an amazing play or completed a spectacular physical feat, but these things are hard to do and often can only be done if particular circumstances arise. Therefore, you may want to advise your client to say something or wear something out of the ordinary. For instance, if your client were to dress in all neon colors they would likely be distinct from the other athletes in the tryout and would be more likely to catch the attention of the professional scouts. Discussion Question 1. How might you explain the Von Restorff Effect using interference? Items that share features are easily confusable because the memory of one of the items can interfere with the memory of the other items. When searching for an item in memory you search for the features of the item that distinguish it from the other items in memory. If many items are similar to the item for which you are searching, those items can interfere with the effectiveness of your search. If an item is distinct from the other items on the list then there is not an overlap between its features, and there is less confusion. Test Bank Answers Multiple Choice Questions 1. You write down a list of 7 items for your roommate to get at the store. From past experience you know your roommate will look at the list but will not take it with them to the store. The only thing on the list that you really need is eggs. Using what you know about the Von Restorff Effect, which of the following could you do to increase the likelihood that your roommate will remember to bring home eggs? a. Write the word eggs in bigger letters than the other words on the list b. Write all of the words in an unusual way c. Write each word on the list in a unique way so that every word has a distinctive feature d. Write every other word on the list in a different color Answer: a. 2. In the Von Restorff Effect demonstration (in the experimental trials), what stimulus feature of the sixth item on the list made it distinct from the other items on the list? a. Its size CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 263 b. Its color c. Its orientation d. Its location Answer: b. 3. For which of the following lists of numbers are you most likely to remember the number 2? a. 5, 2, 3, 7, 9, 4 b. 5, 2, 3, 7, 9, 4 c. 5, 2, 3, 7, 9, 4 d. 5, 2, 3, 7, 9, 4 Answer: d. 4. Using what you know about the Von Restorff effect, which of the following should you do if you want to be remembered in a group interview? a. Wear a crazy shirt b. Cooperate with the other job candidates c. Wait your turn to talk d. Sit near the people whom you think are the strongest job candidates Answer: a. 5. If given a list of items, people are more likely to recall an item that is distinctive from other items on the list. This is known as … a. the position effect. b. the serial recall effect. c. the suffix effect. d. the Von Restorff Effect. Answer: d. True/False Question 1. ___ The Von Restorff Effect can be observed even when the distinctive item is the first one in the series. Answer: True Short Answer Question 1. How is the Von Restorff Effect accounted for? The Von Restorff Effect is thought to result from the distinctiveness of the unique item. The distinctive item stands out from the other items and is more easily remembered. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 266 Students should try to study with cues that will be available at testing. For example, on a multiple choice test students will have choice options given to them and therefore they will want to study for familiarity. Students should also try to study in the same conditions they will be tested. Students might want to take into consideration the time of day, their mood, their environment, their arousal level, and even if they have eaten or not when they study. Matching these things with the conditions students are likely to be in during testing could improve their performance. 2. You have lost your keys. What can you do to help yourself remember where you might have left them? You want to get yourself in the state of mind you were in the last time you remember seeing your keys. You will also want to try and retrace your steps doing the same things you were doing at that time. Recall is an interaction between one’s processing at encoding and processing at retrieval. By getting yourself in a state similar to the one you were in when you last remember having your keys might help you recall where you put them. Test Bank Answers Multiple Choice Questions 1. You typically study for your biology class early in the morning with a cup of coffee after a light breakfast. When text time comes around you are thrilled to discover the schedule because with what you know about encoding specificity you are confident you will do well. Which of the following best fits the probable time of the exam? a. 8:30am; after breakfast b. Noon; after lunchtime c. Evening; after dinner d. 8:30pm; an evening exam Answer: a. 2. The encoding specificity principle implies which of the following is not necessarily true? a. Multiple choice test questions are easier than true/false test questions b. Semantic encoding is leads to better recall than acoustic encoding c. Studying words using rhymes leads to better recall than studying words using synonyms d. All of the above are not true Answer: d. 3. According to the encoding specificity principle, recall is based upon and interaction between: a. encoding and retrieval. b. motivation and memory. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 267 c. the level of processing and memory. d. encoding and the level of processing. Answer: a. 4. Which of the following is not related to encoding specificity? a. mood-dependent memory b. context-dependent memory c. state-dependent memory d. All are related Answer: d. 5. You are studying for an exam but have no idea when, where, or how you will be tested. Using what you know about encoding specificity, what should you do? a. Use one long study session and study somewhere quiet b. Space out your study sessions and study in a variety of contexts c. Space out your study session and study somewhere quiet d. Space out your study session and study in the morning when you are fresh Answer: b. True/False Question 1. ___ According to the encoding specificity principle, people do not necessarily show better recall for information that is processed at a deep level as compared to information that is processed at a shallow level. Answer: True Short Answer Question 1. Why is one’s recall performance enhanced when the properties of the encoded event match the properties of the retrieval situation? How information is stored is related to the context in which it was encoded. If the context during retrieval matches the context that was present at encoding then the contextual information acts as a cue for recall. Essay Question CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 268 1. What is the encoding specificity principle? How is it related to the predicted results of the encoding specificity demonstration? This essay is worth 5 points. Points 1 & 2: The encoding specificity principle states that remembering depends on an interaction between the context that the memory was encoded in and the context present at retrieval. Points 3 & 4: The encoding specificity demonstration predicts that participant’s will show better recall of the target words when the cues given to them during encoding are the same as the cues given to them during recall. Points 5: According to the encoding specificity principle, when the contextual information during retrieval is similar to the contextual information present during encoding then memory is enhanced as compared to when the contextual information between encoding and retrieval is different. - FORGOT-IT-ALL-ALONG EFFECT - Student Manual Answers Basic Questions 1. Why did Schooler, Bendiken, & Ambadar (1997) use the term discovered memories as opposed to recovered memories? They used the term ‘discovered memories’ instead of ‘recovered memories’ because the term ‘recovered memory’ implies that the memory is real while the term’ discovered memory’ is neutral regarding the validity of the memory. 2. Did you forget (in Phase III) that you had correctly remembered items during the test phase (Phase II)? How do you know? In the memory judgment phase (Phase III) of a trial, if a participant failed to report that they had correctly recalled an item in the recall phase (Phase II), then they forgot that they had correctly remembered this item. 3. Were your individual experimental results similar to the predicted results of this experiment? Why or why not? There are two predictions for this demonstration. 1. Their results followed the predicted pattern if a participant had a higher percent correct when the cue was the same for the study phase as the recall phase than when the cue was different. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 271 d. Any of the above Answer: d. 5. You are sitting at your desk at work when all of the sudden you realize you can’t remember where in the company’s parking garage your car is parked. Using what you have learned in the Forgot-It-All-Along demonstration, what could you do to help yourself remember where your car is parked? a. Wait till later in the day and see if you can remember then b. Walk around the building while you try to remember c. Go to the parking garage and see if anything triggers you memory d. Take a nap and think about it again immediately after you wake up. Answer: c. True/False Question 1. ___ A memory that is suddenly discovered in therapy after being forgotten for a period of time is never a memory of a real event. Answer: False Short Answer Question 1. What is the distinction between discovered memories and recovered memories? The term discovered memory is neutral as to the authenticity of the memory, while the term recovered memory implies that the memory is a real event. Essay Question 1. What are the predicted results of the Forgot-It-All-Along demonstration? What are the implications do these findings have for helping people discover memories that have been forgotten? This essay is worth 5 points. Points 1 & 2: The Forgot-It-All-Along demonstration predicts that participants will be more accurate in their memory judgments when the target word is paired with the same cue for both the memory judgment phase and the cued-recall phase of the demonstration as compared to when the cue is different for each of these phases. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 272 Point 3: The demonstration showed that participants were more likely to remember past events when the context for the encoding of the event and the retrieval of the event were similar. Points 4 & 5: An individual that is trying to discover a memory could recreate part of the context of the original episode they are trying to remember. For instance, an individual trying to remember something from their childhood might want to visualize their childhood home, picture themselves at a younger age, and think about the people that they knew at that time. Recreating the context of one’s childhood might make remembering events from one’s childhood easier. - REMEMBER/KNOW - Student Manual Answers Basic Questions 1. In the context of this demonstration what does it mean to know something? Give an example of something that you know. In this demonstration, knowing something means that you have correct information but you are unaware of the original situation in which you learned it. For example, most people know that an apple is a fruit. 2. In the context of this demonstration, what does it mean to remember something? Give anexample of something that you remember. In this demonstration, remembering something means that you have the correct information and you are aware of the original situation in which you learned it. For example, many people remember the first time they drove a car. 3. Did you show a levels-of-processing effect for your remember judgments? Explain your answer. A participant shows a levels-of-processing effect for their remember judgments if they reported remembering a significantly higher percentage of words from the synonym condition than the rhyme condition. 4. Did you show a levels-of-processing effect for your know judgments? Explain your answer. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 273 A participant shows a levels-of-processing effect for their know judgments if they reported knowing a significantly higher percentage of words from the synonym condition that the rhyme condition. Advanced Questions 1. You are putting together a school project on NASA, and you want to include personal accounts (how they felt, where they were, what they were thinking, who they were with) of people who watched the first moon landing on live television. In your search for people who can give you these accounts, do you want to look for people who know about this historic event or remember it? Why? You would want to find people that remember this historic event. People that remember the event will have personal details about of the original event, while people that only know about it will not be able to provide those types of details. 2. You are at the movie theatre and you see someone you recognize. Later you find out it was your 7th grade English teacher. Would you categorize your initial recognition of your teacher as knowing or remembering? Why? Your initial recognition was an example of knowing. You recognized your teacher out of familiarity, but you were unable to remember how you knew her. You were not aware of the original meeting. 3. Your little sister starts talking about a family vacation that you had gone on quite some time ago when she was only 3 years old. She swears she remembers the trip but you are skeptical. How would you go about trying to figure out if she actually remembers the trip or just knows about the trip? You could have her describe her memories of the trip and then you could try to use pictures from the trip to verify and/or disprove the things that she describes. You could also ask her about trip details that did and did not happen on the vacation to see if she is able to accurately identify the true details while not disregarding the fabricated ones. Discussion Question 1. Do you think people are more confident about things they know or things they remember? Explain your answer. Students could try to argue for either answer as long as they provide an adequate rationale. People are usually more confident about things they remember than things they know. If you CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 276 This website contains the references and links to many of Elizabeth F. Loftus’ publications regarding the ways in which memories can be changed. Many articles address the application of this research to the judicial system. Eyewitness Misidentification http://www.innocenceproject.org/understand/Eyewitness-Misidentification.php This website, established by the Innocence Project, highlights the causes of eyewitness misidentification (some from memory errors) and some methods that can be used to reduce eyewitness misidentification. The site also contains stories of misidentification and eventual exoneration along with links to other useful resources. What is Metacognition? http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/Adkins/SEC1.HTM This website looks at the topic of metacogniton and provides links to related topics, such as transfer of metacognitive strategies, what is transferred with metacognition, and the implications for instructional design. Mind Tools: Essential skills for an excellent career http://www.mindtools.com/memory.html This website provides a number of links to a variety of topics like practical creativity, decision making, etc. For this chapter, the important link is on memory improvements which provides a good review of a number of mnemonic devices, including a few that I was not familiar with – “The Number/Shape Mnemonic & “The Major System,” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory As the name suggests, it is a free encyclopedia. This may serve as another resource for students. The website appears to do a nice job in terms of presenting information about various topics related to memory. It is helpful if you already know something about the topic to judge the quality of the material. TEST BANK Multiple Choice 1. __________ refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory. a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Transfer ANS: a REF: Encoding DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 2. __________ refers to how you retain encoded information in memory. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 277 a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Transfer ANS: b REF: Storage DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 3. __________ refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory. a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Transfer ANS: c REF: Retrieval DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 4. The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval __________ with each other and are __________. a. interact; interdependent b. interact; not interdependent c. do not interact; interdependent d. do not interact; not interdependent ANS: a REF: Memory System Integration DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 5. Research shows that encoding in short-term memory is primarily a. visual. b. semantic. c. acoustic. d. none of these ANS: c REF: Short-Term Memory Codes DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 6. In R. Conrad’s (1964) landmark experiment on encoding in short-term memory, Conrad found that despite the fact that letters were presented __________ to participants, errors tended to be based on __________ confusability. a. acoustically; visual b. acoustically; semantic c. visually; acoustic d. visually; semantic ANS: c REF: Short-Term Memory Codes DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 278 7. It appears that although encoding in short-term memory is primarily __________, there may be some secondary __________ encoding, and perhaps even fleeting __________ encoding. a. semantic; acoustic; visual b. semantic; visual; acoustic c. acoustic; visual; semantic d. acoustic; semantic; visual ANS: d REF: Short-Term Memory Codes DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 8. Short-term memory is usually encoded __________ and long-term memory is usually encoded __________. a. semantically; acoustically b. acoustically; semantically c. visually; acoustically d. visually; semantically ANS: b REF: Short-Term Memory Codes DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 9. Encoding of information in the long-term store is not exclusively __________. There also is evidence for __________ encoding. a. semantic; visual b. visual; acoustic c. acoustic; semantic d. visual, semantic ANS: a REF: Long-Term Memory Codes DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 10. Information stored in long-term memory seems to be primarily a. visually encoded. b. acoustically encoded. c. semantically encoded. d. encoded according to the personal relevance of information. ANS: c REF: Long-Term Memory Codes DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual NOT: WWW 11. On his way to the supermarket, Marcelo remembers that he needs tomatoes and cucumbers. He then remembers that he also needs cheese, eggs, and milk. The order in which he remembered the grocery items illustrates that information stored in long-term memory seems to be primarily encoded a. visually. b. acoustically. c. semantically. d. according to the personal relevance of the information. ANS: c REF: Long-Term Memory Codes DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Application CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 281 c. Massed d. Motivated ANS: c REF: Massed Practice DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 23. The greater recall associated with distributed learning is called the __________ effect. a. distributed b. spacing c. mnemonic d. time-delay ANS: b. REF: Spacing Effect DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 24. This stage of sleep seems to be important for the process of consolidating memories. a. reconstructive stage of sleep b. constructive stage of sleep c. Stage 4 d. REM sleep ANS: d REF: Sleep and Consolidation DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 25. Animal research has revealed that cells in the ___________ that are activated during initial learning are reactivated during sleep. a. hippocampus b. amygdala c. prefrontal cortex d. cerebral cortex ANS: a REF: Sleep and Consolidation DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 26. During sleep the__________ is more active after learning new spatial information. a. prefrontal cortex b. amygdala c. hippocampus d. nucleus acumbens ANS: c REF: Sleep and Consolidation DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 27. The hippocampus shows increased activation during sleep after one has learned new declarative information. This increased activation is correlated with extremely ____ levels of acetylcholine. If patients are given acetylcholine while sleeping, they demonstrate _______ memory for the new information. a. low; better b. low; worse c. high; better d. high; worse ANS: b REF: Sleep and Consolidation DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 282 28. Participants in a study using multiple trial learning and lists containing several different categories (e.g., animals, minerals) will spontaneously cluster their recall of items by these categories. Even when there appears to be no apparent relation (e.g., categories), participants still cluster items during recall. These consistent patterns in the order of recall are called a. reality monitoring. b. distributed learning. c. retrospective memory. d. organization of information. ANS: d REF: Memory Organization DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 29. In an effort to remember some grocery items, Andrew visualizes a huge loaf of bread, with a bottle of soda balanced on one side of the bread and a can of soup on the other. Andrew is using a. a mnemonic device. b. metamemory. c. constructive memory. d. massed learning. ANS: a REF: Mnemonics DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application NOT: WWW 30. Mnemonic devices are best described as a. experimental devices used in cognitive studies. b. strategies for efficient problem solving. c. artificial-intelligence algorithms that mimic human reasoning. d. specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words. ANS: d REF: Mnemonics DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 31. Frank is organizing his grocery list into a set of categories in order to remember what he needs to buy at the store. Frank is using what type of memory technique? a. acrostics b. keyword system c. pegword system d. categorical clustering ANS: d REF: Memory Organization DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 32. If you are imagining taking a walk around an area with distinctive landmarks, matching up a landmark with a specific item you need to remember, you are using the ___________ technique. a. acronym b. interactive images c. method of loci d. keyword system ANS: c REF: Mnemonics DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 283 33. As a memory aid, we can use the physical constraints of our environment to help us remember things (e.g., putting an important document on your alarm clock so you remember to take it to work). a. forcing functions b. physical mnemonics c. prospective memory d. physical persistence ANS: a REF: Forcing Functions DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Application 34. Tying a string around your finger, keeping a list of things to do, and asking someone to remind you of something are all examples of strategies to improve a. prospective memory. b. introspective memory. c. retrospective memory. d. retroactive memory. ANS: a REF: Prospective Memory DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 35. This type of memory is for events that have occurred in the past. a. repressed memories b. retrospective memory c. persistence d. maintenance rehearsal ANS: b REF: Retrospective Memory DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 36. One model proposes that three processes are involved in searching short-term memory. If the processes occur simultaneously, the model uses which type of processing? a. serial b. compound c. parallel d. linear ANS: c REF: Parallel Processing DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 37. One model proposes that three processes are involved in searching short-term memory. If the processes must occur in order, the model uses which type of processing? a. serial b. compound c. parallel d. linear ANS: a REF: Serial Processing DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 38. In an exhaustive serial processing search of short-term memory, people generally take __________ amount(s) of time to find a target __________. a. different; depending on where in the list it is located. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 286 c. between the presentation of the last stimulus and the start of the recall phase of the experimental trial. d. between the presentation of the first and last stimuli within a trial. ANS: c REF: Retention Interval DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 49. __________ interference is caused by an activity occurring after we learn something, but before we are asked to recall that thing. a. Decay b. Proactive c. Retroactive d. Reconstructive ANS: c REF: Retroactive Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Factual 50. Retroactive interference is caused by activity occurring __________ we learn something and __________ we are asked to recall that thing. a. after; after b. after; before c. after; while d. before; after ANS: b REF: Retroactive Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Factual NOT: WWW 51. At a party, Hoshiko was introduced to Steve just as she arrived. Hoshiko then went off to speak with a different group and was introduced to each of them as well. After hearing the new names, Hoshiko could not remember Steve’s name. This description illustrates a. retroactive interference. b. proactive interference. c. decay. d. reconstructive forgetting. ANS: a REF: Retroactive Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Application 52. Sandra has just come from studying with some classmates to whom she has just been introduced. She then runs into a good friend who introduces her to David. As Sandra walks away, she realizes that she can’t remember David’s name. This description illustrates a. decay. b. reconstructive forgetting. c. retroactive interference. d. proactive interference. ANS: d REF: Proactive Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Application 53. __________ interference occurs when the interfering material occurs before, rather than after, learning of the to-be-remembered material. a. Retroactive CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 287 b. Proactive c. Decay d. Reconstructive ANS: b REF: Proactive Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Factual 54. Proactive interference occurs when the interfering material occurs __________ rather than __________ learning of the to-be-remembered material. a. after; before b. after; during c. before; during d. before; after ANS: d REF: Proactive Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Factual NOT: WWW 55. Keppel and Underwood (1962) showed that proactive interference can operate in the forgetting of material stored in the a. short-term store. b. long-term store, in general. c. long-term store, but only with semantic information. d. both short- and long-term stores. ANS: a REF: Proactive Interference DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 56. The serial-position curve represents the probability of recall of a. a given word, given its semantic relationship to other words in a list. b. groups of words, given their relative order of presentation in a list. c. a given word, given its order of presentation in a list. d. groups of words, given their semantic relationship. ANS: c REF: Serial Position DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 57. A typical serial position curve shows that recall of words in a list is best for items __________ of the list and poorest for items __________. a. at and near the end; in the middle b. at and near the end; near the beginning c. near the beginning; in the middle d. near the beginning; at and near the end ANS: a REF: Serial Position DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual NOT: WWW 58. Superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list is referred to as a(n) __________ effect. a. primacy b. primary c. recency d. availability ANS: a REF: Serial Position: Primacy Effect DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 288 59. After being given directions to get to the theater, Kurt can remember only the first part of where to turn. This illustrates the __________ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. initial d. availability ANS: a REF: Serial Position: Primacy Effect DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 60. Superior recall of words at and near the end of a list is referred to as a(n) __________ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. finality d. availability ANS: b REF: Serial Position: Recency Effect DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 61. After being given directions to get to the park, Galvin can remember only the last part of where he is to turn. This illustrates the __________ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. finality d. availability ANS: b REF: Serial Position: Recency Effect DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 62. The serial-position curve can be well explained in terms of the __________ theory of forgetting. a. availability b. decay c. interaction d. interference ANS: d REF: Serial Position: Interference DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Factual 63. Words at the __________ of a list in a free-recall task are most subject to proactive interference. a. beginning b. middle c. end d. beginning and end ANS: c REF: Serial Position: Interference DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 291 75. An example of this specific “sin” from Schacter’s “seven memory sins” would be someone having information “on the tip of their tongue,” but being unable to retrieve it: a. transience. b. bias. c. persistence. d. blocking. ANS: d REF: Memory “Sins”: Blocking DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 76. Jennifer cannot remember where she heard that pigs were very intelligent animals. Roger thinks he read in The Sunday Herald that Death Valley is the warmest spot in the United States; however, he really read about Death Valley in Outside Magazine. These memory lapses are examples of a. suggestibility. b. misattribution. c. absent-mindedness. d. persistence. ANS: b REF: Memory “Sins”: Misattribution DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Application 77. Studies show that memory is not just __________, such that we use only what we have encountered to help us rebuild original remembered experience; it is also __________, in that our schemas for prior experience affect how we recall things. a. retroactive; proactive b. proactive; retroactive c. constructive; reconstructive d. reconstructive; constructive ANS: d REF: Reconstructive and Constructive Memory DIF: Hard MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 78. Tony keeps mentally reliving the time that he was hit in the head with a Frisbee. This reoccurrence of this memory is an example of a. transience. b. misattribution. c. persistence. d. bias. ANS: c REF: Memory “Sins”: Persistence DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Application 79. The difficulty in recalling information that one knows they should know. This is called a. transience. b. misattribution. c. persistence. d. blocking. ANS: d REF: Memory “Sins”: Blocking DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 292 80. One of the sins of memory in which false information is thought to have occurred (e.g., seeing something that did not occur). a. suggestibility b. bias c. blocking d. transience ANS: a REF: Memory “Sins”: Suggestibility DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 81. This is the notion that some types of memories (e.g., due to trauma) have been “pushed deep into the unconscious” and therefore may be difficult to retrieve. a. persistence b. suggestibility c. repressed memories d. transience ANS: c REF: Repressed Memories DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 82. When the perpetrator (person who committed a crime) is not present in a line-up, eyewitnesses tend to a. pick an individual who looks most like the perpetrator. b. not pick anyone from the line-up. c. pick the least attractive individual in the line-up. d. pick an individual from the line-up at random. ANS: a REF: Eyewitness Testimony DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 83. From which of the following groups is the validity of eyewitness testimony particularly suspect? a. children b. people with dyslexia c. people with quadriplegia d. adolescent males ANS: a REF: Eyewitness Testimony DIF: Easy MSC: TYPE: Factual 84. Several recommendations have been made to improve eyewitness testimony. Which of the following is not one of those recommendations? a. present suspects one-at-a-time to eyewitnesses in the line-up. b. tell eyewitnesses that the perpetrator may not be in the line-up. c. construct line-ups with individuals who look similar. d. place more trust in confident eyewitnesses testimony. ANS: d REF: Eyewitness Testimony DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 85. Roediger and McDermott have shown that a. it is impossible to create false memories. b. it is easy to create false memories. CH06_STERNBERG IMTB_1 THE LANDSCAPE DISINTEGRATED 293 c. it is difficult to create false memories. d. false memories are more common than true ones. ANS: b REF: DRM False Memory DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 86. This occurs when a person has a difficult time in remembering the context in which they heard the information and erroneously attribute it to a different context. a. source- monitoring error b. accessibility c. encoding specificity d. context dependent memory ANS: a REF: Source-Monitoring Error DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 87. Under laboratory conditions, participants seem __________ to recall items that have pleasantassociations items __________ that have unpleasant associations. a. more accurately; than b. less accurately; than c. equally accurately; as d. Evidence is inconclusive. ANS: a REF: Mood and Recall DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Conceptual 88. According to the construct of __________, the specific way of representing information as it is placed into memory affects the specific way in which the information may be recalled later. a. distributed learning b. encoding specificity c. metacognitive strategy d. reconstructive memory ANS: b REF: Encoding Specificity DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Factual 89. Joanne is studying for a psychology test. Based on the results of studies examining context effects, Joanne should get the best test results if she a. studies in the library by herself. b. studies on her bed in her bedroom. c. studies while intoxicated. d. studies in the testing room. ANS: d REF: Encoding Specificity DIF: Moderate MSC: TYPE: Application Essay 1. What is distributed practice? ANS: Answer not provided NOT: WWW