Chapter 3 – World Religions, Study notes of World Religions

Download Chapter 3 – World Religions and more Study notes World Religions in PDF only on Docsity! Chapter 3 – World Religions 1 1. Introduction By 500 B.C.E., the roots of the world’s great religious traditions were emerging in the Middle East, India, and China. Judaism was well established in the Middle East, and later Christianity and Islam developed there. Hinduism and Buddhism arose in India. And China developed Confucianism, a philosophy that became a state religion. All these religions are unique, but they also have key elements in common. They all set down basic ethical principles to guide human actions. They use sacred texts to teach moral values, often through stories or parables. They offer a universal message that appealed to people in different places and with diverse cultural backgrounds. Click to read caption This broad appeal and emphasis on ethics made the new faiths different from earlier religions. Previously, most religions had been local, based on the worship of gods and spirits associated with particular places. They involved rituals, such as animal sacrifice, that were designed to appease the gods and win their favor. People looked to the gods to help them in their daily lives, to bring prosperity and protect them from their enemies. Chapter 3 – World Religions 2 In contrast, universal religions look beyond this world and its practical needs. They offer the hope of a better life and access to a higher truth. Because these religions are “portable”—because they can be practiced anywhere—they were able to spread to other parts of the world. In this way, they became world religions. In this lesson, you will read about the six major world religions. You will learn about their origins, basic beliefs, and practices. You will also see how they spread beyond their lands of origin to influence human society around the world. Themes Cultural Interaction Religions spread cultural ideas and also changed as they expanded around the world. Their interaction with other cultures and belief systems was sometimes peaceful and sometimes not. Political Structures World religions influenced rulers and political systems. Some religious institutions exercised great power. Economic Structures Some religious institutions amassed great wealth. An emphasis on charity helped people in need. Social Structures Religions influenced social systems such as families and schools. In some cases, they reinforced social classes. In others, they helped break down class barriers. 2. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam The world religions that arose in the Middle East—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—share some common traits. The most important is monotheism, the belief in a single, all-powerful God. They also believe in prophets, holy people who revealed the word of God. One important prophet in these religions is Abraham, known as the father of the Jewish people. Judaism: Origins and Development The early history of Judaism is shrouded in the mists of time. Most scholars believe, however, that Abraham was a real person who was born some 4,000 years ago in Mesopotamia. According to Jewish scripture, God visited Abraham one day and made a sacred agreement, or covenant, with him. Abraham promised that he and his descendants would follow God’s teachings and God promised to love them. Abraham’s descendants were known as the Israelites, sometimes called the Hebrews. They were the ancestors of the Jewish people. Click to read caption Chapter 3 – World Religions 5 Christianity: Origins and Development The second world religion to emerge in the Middle East was Christianity. The birthplace of Christianity was a territory at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans called it Judea. It had once been a part of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. The first Christians were Jews and maintained many Jewish beliefs. They worshiped one God, valued taking care of the needy, recognized Abraham as a prophet, and believed the Hebrew Bible was holy. But Christianity soon developed its own doctrine and a much larger following. The origins of Christianity lay in the life and teachings of Jesus, considered by Christians to be the Son of God. The story of Jesus is based largely on accounts in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Born in the Roman province of Judea about 6 B.C.E., Jesus was a Jewish teacher. When he was around 30 years old, he left home to travel across Judea and teach the word of God. Jesus taught that God was merciful and loving and that people should love God and their neighbors. He said that those who lived according to God’s will would be forgiven their sins and relieved of suffering. The Christian Bible says that Jesus healed the sick and performed other miracles. In the process, he gained many followers. Among them were twelve special disciples known as the apostles, who were given the task of spreading Jesus’ message. Soon, some people began calling Jesus the Messiah, or “anointed one,” chosen by God to save humankind. He later became known as Christ, the Greek term for Messiah. The Roman authorities who ruled Judea saw Jesus as a troublemaker, however. They feared that he might spark a rebellion among the Jews. They arrested him and sentenced him to death. The New Testament of the Christian Bible tells that around 30 C.E. Jesus was put to death by crucifixion, a common form of execution used by the Romans. According to the New Testament, friends placed his body in tomb. The New Testament says that three days later Jesus rose from the dead and then appeared to his disciples. Christians call this event the Resurrection. For Christians, the Resurrection proved that Jesus was a holy savior. They said that anyone who recognized him as the Messiah would enter the Kingdom of God. Although the Romans often persecuted Christians, Christianity gradually spread throughout the empire. Paul, who was named an apostle after Jesus' death, played a key role by bringing non-Jews into the faith. Eventually Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Over time, the Roman Catholic Church became rich and powerful. The Christian faith later divided into Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant branches. But Christianity as a whole continued to expand. Chapter 3 – World Religions 6 Click to read caption The Beliefs of Christianity The Christian holy book is the Bible. It consists of two parts. The Old Testament is the Hebrew Bible, which Christians recognize as the word of God. The New Testament is a collection of stories and teachings written by various people who knew Jesus or played key roles in the early Christian church. The New Testament contains the Gospels, which are accounts of Jesus' life and teachings. Christian doctrine is complex, with many different interpretations. But several key ideas are found among almost all Christians. One of these is the Trinity. According to Christian teaching, God consists of three beings in one—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—in a union known as the Trinity. Christians believe that God the father is the creator of the universe. They believe that God the son is Jesus, known to his followers as Jesus Christ. And they believe that the Holy Spirit is God’s presence and power at work in the world today. Christianity also teaches about the Resurrection and salvation. They believe that Jesus rose from the dead and lives in heaven. They also believe that God can save people from sin and grant then everlasting life after death. This belief is called salvation. Many Christians believe that salvation depends on God’s grace, which is God’s gift of love and divine assistance which absolves people of their sins. This gift is said to be open to all who believe in Jesus and ask for God’s forgiveness. Christians practice their faith by trying to follow Christ’s moral teachings and by observing certain customs and rituals. Many go to church on Sunday to worship and pray. They may also perform sacred rituals called sacraments. One sacrament is baptism, which makes a person a member of the Christian church. Another is Holy Communion, the symbolic sharing of bread and wine. This ritual mirrors the Last Supper, the final meal the New Testament says that Jesus had with his disciples. Christians also take part in holidays and festivals, such as Christmas and Easter, which celebrate the birth and Resurrection of Jesus. The Spread and Influence of Christianity By the first century C.E., Christianity had spread to many parts of the Roman Empire. In later centuries, it also gained followers in Persia, China, and India. Christian missionaries carried the faith to Africa and the Americas. Today, Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the world, with some two billion followers worldwide. The spread of Christianity was not always peaceful, however. Although millions of people converted to the new religion, others resisted. Conversion was sometimes accomplished by force. Christians and Muslims, in particular, clashed over their religious beliefs. In many cases, Christianity also adapted to local cultures. In Latin America, for example, Christian beliefs blended with native traditions, producing a faith that was more meaningful to the local population. Click to read caption Over the centuries, Christianity has had a great impact on culture and society. As with Judaism, Christian ethics have influenced codes of law in many countries. Christian charity has helped millions of poor and suffering Chapter 3 – World Religions 7 people. The power of Christian belief and institutions has also influenced politics and government. Throughout history, many rulers have depended on the support of Christian churches to gain and hold power. Islam: Origins and Development Islam emerged in the Middle East in the 600s C.E., centuries after Judaism and Christianity. It grew rapidly, however, and soon became one of the world’s major religions. Islam was taught by Muhammad, who was born in Mecca, in Arabia, in around 570 C.E. At the time, Mecca was an important trade center and pilgrimage site. A shrine in the heart of Mecca, called the Ka’bah, was filled with statues of local gods and spirits. Muhammad became a successful and respected merchant. As the years passed, however, he was increasingly drawn to spiritual matters. One day in about 610 C.E., according to Islamic teachings, Muhammad was meditating in a cave when an angel appeared before him and revealed the word of Allah, or God. The angel told him he had been chosen as Allah’s prophet, or messenger. Around 613 C.E., Muhammad began to preach in Mecca. He called on Arabs to worship the one, true God. In Arabic, the word Islam means “to submit.” Muhammad’s followers became known as Muslims, meaning “those who submit to God.” Click to read caption Many local leaders saw Islam as a threat to their power and prestige, however, and began to persecute the Muslims. In 622, Muhammad and his followers left Mecca and traveled to the city of Medina. There, his teachings continued to gain a following among the Arab tribes. By 630, the Muslims were strong enough to retake Mecca and establish Islam as the dominant faith of Arabia. They destroyed the statues of gods in the Ka’bah and turned it into a holy shrine of Islam. Muhammad died in 632. But the Muslim leaders who followed continued to win converts and expand the religion. By 750, Islam had moved beyond Arabia to become the main religion of the Middle East and North Africa. It also spread to Spain, Central Asia, and India. The Beliefs of Islam Muslims recognize the Jewish and Christian prophets, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. But they regard Muhammad as the last and greatest prophet who revealed the complete message of God. They believe that the Qur’an, the Muslim holy book, contains the word of God as revealed to Muhammad. Chapter 3 – World Religions 10 Sometime after 1000 B.C.E., religious seekers in India began to take Vedic religion in a new direction. They sought a more personal faith that did not require complicated rituals and the intervention of priests. They used meditation and other forms of spiritual practice to achieve a deeper, more mystical religious experience. These ideas—expressed in a new set of texts called the Upanishads—became an important element of Hinduism. Click to read caption In addition, two epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, also appeared around this time. They told stories about Hindu gods, kings, and heroes. They conveyed religious and philosophical ideas and provided a model for Hindu life. These new works joined the Vedas and Upanishads as part of the body of sacred Hindu literature. The Beliefs of Hinduism The Hindu belief system is highly complex. It does not conform to a uniform set of ideas or practices. Nevertheless, certain basic elements are common to most schools of Hindu thought. One element is polytheism. Hindus believe in multiple gods and goddesses that control different aspects of the universe. Some people devote themselves to a particular god or goddess, saying prayers and leaving offerings in the hope of gaining divine help. Many Hindus believe that the various gods and goddesses are forms of a single, supreme, and divine force called Brahman. The goal of many Hindus is to unite their soul, or atman, with Brahman. Hindus believe that time moves in a great circle, like a giant wheel. Events repeat themselves, just as the seasons do. Birth, life, and death are part of this cycle. When people die, their soul is said to be reborn in a different body. This cycle of rebirth, called reincarnation, is a key feature of Hindu belief. Two other basic elements are dharma and karma. Dharma stands for law, duty, and obligation. Every Hindu has a dharma that reflects his or her caste in Indian society. People follow their dharma by performing their duties and living in an honorable way. Living honorably includes observing common social values, such as nonviolence and charity toward others. Karma refers to a person’s actions and the consequence of their actions. The law of karma says that people who live properly will have good karma and be reborn to a higher caste. Those who fail to live a proper life will have bad karma and be reborn to a lower caste, perhaps even as animals. Chapter 3 – World Religions 11 The ultimate goal of Hindu belief is to escape reincarnation entirely. Devout Hindus believe that by living a spiritual life, they can free themselves from karma and attain moksha, or release, thus merging their soul with Brahman and ending the cycle of rebirth. The Spread and Influence of Hinduism Unlike Christianity and Islam, Hinduism did not spread far beyond its land of origin. Although its values are universal in many ways, Hinduism is strongly linked to Indian culture. Nevertheless, through trade and migration, Hindu beliefs and customs did spread to many parts of Southeast Asia. There they blended with local traditions and ways of life. Today, there are around 900 million followers of Hinduism, most of them in South Asia. Hindu beliefs are deeply woven into Indian society. So are Hindu festivals and the devotion to Hindu gods. Many Indians make religious pilgrimages to holy sites, such as Varanasi, where they purify themselves in the waters of the Ganges River. At the same time, certain Hindu ideas and practices, such as yoga, have also gained a following around the world. Click to read caption Buddhism: Origins and Development Buddhism embraced the ideas of karma and reincarnation. But it did not emphasize complex rituals, the caste system, or polytheism. Instead, it focused on the search for enlightenment, or pure wisdom. Buddhism arose from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (si-DAHR-tuh GOW-tuh-muh), who became the Buddha, or “enlightened one.” Siddhartha lived from about 563 to 483 B.C.E. According to tradition, he was born into a ruling family in northern India. As a youth, he enjoyed the privileged life of a prince. When he was 29 years old, however, he stepped outside his palace and saw the pain and suffering of the world. He was shocked by the reality of poverty, disease, and death. Soon after, he left his comfortable life to wander across India in search of a greater truth. Like many Indian mystics at the time, Siddhartha sought to achieve a higher consciousness through meditation and ascetic practices. (To be ascetic means to give up worldly pleasures.) According to Buddhist tradition, Siddhartha fasted to the point of starvation. After several years, however, he had still not attained the release he was seeking. He concluded that the path to truth could not be found in either the life of a prince or an ascetic. He decided to seek a “middle way” to enlightenment between the extremes of pleasure and pain. Buddhist tradition says that Siddhartha sat down under a large fig tree—known as a bodhi tree—and began to meditate. This went on for many days. Then one night, he reached a new level of consciousness. He envisioned his past lives and the effects of karma. He shed his desires and became enlightened. By morning, he had attained nirvana—a state of happiness and peace—and had become the Buddha. Chapter 3 – World Religions 12 Although he had attained his goal and could now rest, Siddhartha felt a duty to help others. He began to teach his ideas and soon gained a following. Gradually, Buddhism began to spread across northern India. Click to read caption The Beliefs of Buddhism The basic teachings of Buddhism are known as the Four Noble Truths. These principles form the core of Buddhist thought. The first Noble Truth says, “Suffering is present in all things, and nothing lasts forever.” Disease, loss, and death are inevitable. Ignoring or denying this truth only leads to more suffering. A Buddhist should recognize this reality and offer kindness and compassion to those who suffer. The second truth says, “The cause of suffering is desire.” This means that the desire for pleasure, power, or possessions gives rise to suffering. Emotional attachment is another form of desire. The third truth says, “Removing desire removes suffering.” Buddhism teaches that the only way to end suffering is to eliminate desire. The fourth truth says, “The way to remove desire is to follow the Eightfold Path.” The Eightfold Path is a set of guidelines to achieve enlightenment. These are the eight guidelines: 1. Right understanding: Deeply understand the Four Noble Truths. 2. Right purpose: Live a life of selflessness, love, and nonviolence. 3. Right speech: Be careful and truthful in what you say. 4. Right action: Do not kill, steal, lie, or hurt others. 5. Right livelihood: Earn a living in ways that do no harm. 6. Right effort: Promote good actions and prevent evil actions. 7. Right mindfulness: Be aware of but not attached to your emotions, thoughts, or feelings. 8. Right concentration: Focus your mind with practices such as meditation. At the heart of Buddhist teachings is the idea that all things change. Even when one finds pleasure in life, it does not last forever, and one suffers when it is gone. The Eightfold Path offers a way to end suffering and find peace. This path follows the “middle way.” Chapter 3 – World Religions 15 Confucius believed that building a better, more harmonious society would bring humans closer to heaven. To do this, he said, people should follow ethical guidelines to improve their relations with others. The main guideline was to live a life of virtue. The most important virtue was ren, which means “benevolence” or “humanity.” Confucius urged people to treat others as they would like to be treated themselves, with respect and kindness. “What you do not want done to yourself,” he said, “do not do to others.” According to Confucianism, there are five basic relationships in society: between parent and child, husband and wife, older sibling and younger sibling, friend and friend, and ruler and subject. The most important relationship is between parent and child. Confucius said that filial piety—respect of children for their parents—was critical to the social order. He said that people should respect and obey those with higher social status, particularly their elders. In return, people in authority, such as parents and rulers, should set a good example. They should be kind, honest, wise, and faithful. Despite this emphasis on social categories, Confucius urged respect for all people, regardless of social class. He stood up for the rights of the common people and accepted students from all walks of life, rich or poor. He called for universal education to benefit all of society. The Spread and Influence of Confucianism After Confucius’s death, his disciples collected his teachings in book called the Analects, which helped spread his ideas throughout China. Other scholars advanced the principles of Confucianism. Chinese rulers later adopted Confucianism as a state ideology—a basic set of ideas, beliefs, and values. Knowledge of the Confucian classics became the basis of the state civil service exam. Confucian ethics became enmeshed in Chinese culture. School children memorized his sayings, and temples were erected in his memory. Some Chinese even worshipped Confucius as a god. In effect, Confucianism became a state religion. Confucian ideas also spread to other parts of Asia. Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia were all strongly influenced by Confucianism. Today, Confucian ethics remain an important part of Asian culture. 5. The Impact of World Religions The growth and spread of world religions had a great impact on society. Many effects were specific to particular cultures or regions, such as the influence of the Hindu caste system on India and Confucian ethics on China. But other effects were more global in nature. These broad effects cut across cultural lines to influence human society in general. Global Effects on Society World religions helped shape society and culture in various ways. One key factor was the creation of large communities of people with shared beliefs. Before the rise of universal religions, most people had worshiped local gods in small communities. Because the new, universal religions had broad appeal and could be practiced anywhere, they produced much larger communities of believers. These communities were linked by common belief systems and ethical values that helped people live together. They also brought economic and political benefits to their members. For example, Muslim traders did business with other Muslims in distant lands. They built large trade networks based on religious ties. Jewish communities provided strength and support, which helped Jews maintain their identity despite discrimination and periods of oppression. Early Christians helped each other survive in the face of Roman persecution. Chapter 3 – World Religions 16 Click to read caption World religions gave strength to people undergoing hardship and difficulties. They gave meaning to daily life and offered the hope of a better afterlife. Believers gained spiritual peace from prayer, meditation, and other religious practices. People in need also got aid and support from religious institutions. An emphasis on charity and caring brought comfort to the poor and afflicted in society. Click to read caption World religions also influenced social and political structures. Rulers and religious leaders often worked together to uphold the existing social and political order. Religious establishments supported rulers in return for official backing and protection. Churches often counseled believers to accept their place in society. They told them that faith and patience in this life would bring rewards in heaven. At the same time, religious ideas also prompted social and political change. People sometimes rebelled against rulers who failed to uphold moral laws. Religious ethics also gave rise to legal codes that applied to everyone, regardless of social class. The Judeo-Christian idea that everyone was equal in the eyes of God supported the principle of democratic equality. Women, who were often portrayed as inferior to men, even gained some rights through religion. Islam, for example, guaranteed women’s property and inheritance rights. Christian monasteries provided a refuge for women. Religion also had a strong impact on art and culture. It helped spread cultural ideas and values around the world. Many great works of art—from cathedrals and temples to paintings and music—were inspired by religious faith. Religion also promoted literacy by encouraging people to read sacred texts. In this way, it expanded education and learning. In addition, religion influenced many cultural celebrations, holidays, and festivals. These events often merged religious beliefs with local customs and traditions. Chapter 3 – World Religions 17 Click to read caption Cultural and Religious Interactions As world religions expanded, they came into contact with diverse peoples and cultures. In the process, they adapted and changed. As Buddhism spread across Asia, for example, it absorbed many local customs. Regional variations of Buddhism developed in China, Tibet, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In some places, Buddhists continued to worship ancient, pre-Buddhist spirits. Shrines to these spirits even existed inside Buddhist temples. Christianity also evolved as it spread across the Roman Empire. It blended Greek, Roman, and Germanic customs with its Jewish heritage. The celebration of Christmas, for example, combined Christian and pre- Christian beliefs. Christmas day was set on the date of an ancient feast day and celebration of the sun. As they expanded, world religions also came into contact with each other. Sometimes the result was conflict. During the Crusades, Christians and Muslims fought over control of the eastern Mediterranean, especially the city of Jerusalem, which both saw as holy. Muslims also attacked Hindus as idol-worshipers during their conquest of India. Often, however, world religions coexisted. Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived together in the Muslim Empire. Buddhist and Confucian ideas mixed in China. Hinduism and Buddhism mingled in Southeast Asia. Summary In this lesson, you read about the six major world religions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. You learned about their origins and basic beliefs. You also learned how they spread to different parts of the world and influenced human society. Cultural Interaction Religions spread new ideas and values as they expanded. They also adapted to local customs and beliefs. Religions also interacted, in both peaceful and violent ways. Religious beliefs and practices blended in many parts of the world.