CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE, Exams of Nursing

Download CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! 1 | P a g e 1. Continuous Development: 2. Discontinuous Development: 3. One course of development or many? CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING CHILD DEVELOPMENT QUESTION ONE Theorists have a certain point of view or take a certain stand on the basic issue underlying child development. Berk (2013) refers to the following:  What is the course of development? (continuous/ discontinuous)  Is development characterised by both universal and unique individual features (one course of development or many)?  What factors determine development (nature/nurture)?  Determine (settle or decide), Discuss (Debate – explore solutions / consider argument) & Evaluate (Judge/ determine worth or quality)  Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory & the Information-Processing Approach  Humans = COMPLEX.  Change physically, mentally and emotionally.  No single theory can explain development.  Process = add more information to what we have already  Skills born with.  Violin = practice (day by day practice – develop their ability)  Process = new ways understanding & responding emerge at specific times.  Child moves through series of developmental stages until = highest level of functioning.  Stages – qualitative changes in thinking, feeling and behaving that specify periods of development.  E.g. Crawl to Walk  Universal Development = Stage theorists assume that all children follow the same sequence of development. Any differences are called variations from the fundamental development process.  Context Specific Development = However, it is becoming more known that children grow up with distinct + unique combinations of genes plus environment that can result in different paths of change.  Western = individual/ independence = success  Other cultures/ African cultures = community + whole = success 2 | P a g e 4. Nature versus nurture controversy CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Genetics or environment plays a bigger role?  Tabula Rosa = blank slate according to John Locke when we are born, indicating that nurture is the main influence in human development THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY 5 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  V = Private Speech – a child communicates with themselves as much as they do with the world & others  V = Course of development + individuality + Nature vs Nurture take place within a child’s zone of proximal development = a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers 1. Intersubjectivity – Process whereby two participants begin a task with different understandings and arrive at the same/shared understanding 2. Scaffolding – Whereby the level of support offered during a learning session is adapted to fit the child’s level of performance 3. Guided Participation – refers to shared endeavours between expert and less expert participants  V = explains wide cultural variation in culture skills + expect highly different paths of development.  V Criticism = lack of attention given to biological contributions & also his theory is vague in his explanation of how cognitive change occurs  Human mind = symbol-manipulating system through which information flows  With age, a number of things happen + this process gradually improves the perception, attention, memory and problem-solving skills in a continuous course of development  It says that with age: 1. The basic capacity of the memory stores increase 2. The speed of information processing increases thereby increasing the processing efficiency 3. The encoding of information becomes more thorough 4. The ability to prevent distracting stimuli from diverting attention increases 5. Strategies to improve storage, retrieval and use of info = more effective 6. The amount + understanding of knowledge base INCREASES 7. Awareness and understanding of the cognitive process (metacognition) improve which in turn leads to more effective strategies UNIVERSAL VERSUS CONTEXT SPECIFIC DEBATE  IPA = children primarily change in relation to age  IPA = provides a flowchart type of approach where a child takes steps to solve a problem 6 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Because of structure approach to processing = ALL children follow this basic approach 7 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING NATURE VS. NURTURE DEBATE  IPA = As brain matures (nature) + child confronts new environmental demands, the child’s thinking is modified in accordance with growing capabilities within the changing environment thus, big influence that nurture has on development CONCLUSION  Strength = attention to careful + in depth research methods which has helped developed intervention techniques / interventions that can help children in problem solving in advanced ways  Aspects of cognition are not linear and logical are all but ignored i.e. imagination + creativity  Majority of research is only laboratory results but not real-life situations  But hold promise for the future understanding of cog development and its mechanisms  Gender stereotyping = “Gender Schema Theory” which combines social learning and cog development into a UNIFIED picture of how gender orientations are emerged + maintained DISCUSSION OF THE TWO VIEWPOINTS  Vygotsky states that LANGUAGE acquisition is DISCONTINOUS  A child becomes advanced in reflection – of their own thinking  LANGUAGE = attributed to complex problems + reasoning as a child ages  Conversations with older adults (or experts) = NOT culture specific & can lead to CONTINOUS change in a child’s cognition  Child’s cognitive development = socially mediated, learnt through social interaction is passed onto net generation  Social interaction surrounding the tasks given to by parents for success in particular culture = children developing unique strengths within their culture  Diverse cultures = communicated & valued in each culture will vary and results in many different courses of development  Skills learned by urban school will differ from those at township schools or those who cannot attend school (survival skills/techniques)  Vygotsky = ignores biological factors  Hereditary and brain growth is important but little said about its influence on child development  Great emphasis on social transmission of knowledge + less on children’s capacity to shape their own development  Does NOT explain how children internalise their social experiences to advance mental functioning  Does not explain children’s profound change in thinking  V = teaching plays important role (communicating experts) which will assist in revising 10 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING Summary Vygotsky Information-Processing Course of Development Continuous Yes Yes Discontinuous Yes No Characteristics of Development Universal (1 course) No Yes Unique (context specific, several courses) Yes No Determining Factors Nature Yes Yes Nurture Yes Yes Reliability & validity are the keys to scientifically sound research. Discuss this statement by referring to the following research methods: Systematic observation, self-reports (interviews + questionnaires), neurobiological methods, the clinical or case study method, and methods for studying culture Validity: Research Methods: 1. Systemic Observation 11 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING QUESTION TWO Reliability:  Refers to the consistency, repeatability of measures of behaviour  Measures repeated within a short time should yield similar results  Various methods for determining reliability of data: 1. Test-Retest Reliability = administered twice to the same group of test-takers 2. Alternate-Form Reliability = two equivalent forms of the same measure administered to the same group on two different occasions 3. Split-Half Reliability = Splitting the measure into two equivalent halves applied at a single sitting 4. Inter-Scorer Reliability = Tests scored by two or more assessment practitioners need to be scored consistently in the same way  Reliability and validity need to be used together  Reliability is a pre-requisite for validity  Must accurately measure what the test is intended to measure  Validity = broadly to the accuracy of research findings and conclusions  Two types 1. Internal Validity = degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit an accurate test of the researcher’s hypothesis or question 2. External Validity = degree to which their findings generalize to settings and participants outside the original study Naturalistic  Going into the field/ natural environment/ recording the behaviour of interest i.e. going into a school to watch the behaviour of the children  Strength = Reflects participant’s everyday behaviours  Weakness = Cannot control conditions under which participants are observed & 12 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING accuracy of observations bay be reduced observer influence + observer bias 15 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 2. Self-Reports – Interviews and Questionnaires  Self-Reports includes participant’s info on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes, beliefs and past experiences  Self-reports include interviews (unstructured, semi-structured & very structured), questionnaires and tests Unstructured Interview (Clinical Interview)  Flexible / Conversational style to probe participants point of view  Not too rigid form of questioning  Strengths = Allows people to think as they do in everyday life + Lots of info in a short period of time  Weaknesses/ Limitations = May not be accurate info  Flexible style can make comparing people’s responses difficult Reliability:  More depth + info which make is similar to everyday behaviours + inaccurate info can affect reliability as results cannot be recreated Validity:  Lower internal validity due to less control over interview + possibility of inaccurate info  Stronger external validity (more info and depth – more accurate to everyday) – thereby increasing external validity and increasing generalisability  Interviews conducted twice often showing a varied response – compromising validity (Can be controlled by focusing on current experiences rather than history/ focusing on specific characteristics BUT internal and external validity assured  Internal = ensuring the study does not influence participants behaviour  External = ensuring the sample can represent the real world Structured Interview/ Test/ Questionnaire  Every person is asked the exact same questions in the same way  Strengths = Does not include pressing/prompting for answers  = Can easily compare responses (test-retest)  = More efficient than clinical interviews  = Answers are briefer + can be done in groups  = Researchers can state activities/ behaviours they are interested in  Weaknesses/ Limitations = Lacks depth in info compared to clinical interviews  = Can be affected by inaccurate reporting Reliability: 16 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Can be unreliable due to possible inaccurate reporting + inconsistency 17 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING Validity:  Allows interviewers to get exactly what they are interested in through straight forward questions and answers 3. Neurobiological Methods  NM = measure the relationship between nervous system processes and behaviour  Monitoring heart rate/ blood pressure/ respiration/ pupil dilation/ electrical conductance of the skin/ stress hormone level  Also help researchers infer the perceptions, thoughts, and emotions of infants/children who cannot report their psychological experiences clearly  EEG (electroencephalogram) and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) are two measures of brain functioning  Measures involuntary activities of the CNS (central nervous system) and brain functions  Strengths = Can see how CNS structures contribute to development + individual differences  = Helps investigators assume perceptions/ thoughts/ emotions of infants and young children  Weakness/ Limitations = No certainty in the meaning of autonomic or brain activity  = Relies on assumptions  = Many factors can influence a physiological response (researcher influence/ anxiety) Reliability:  Results can be compared to the same measures on separate occasions (test-retest)  EEG’s & fMRI produce repeatable results  Many factors can influence physiological response/ making the measurement unreliable  Interpreting response involves a lot of assumption – not too reliable  Even if an expected response occurs/ the participants may have not processes the stimulus appropriately  Many factors can influence a response (lack of sleep)  Observer influence can affect results (feeling watched) Validity:  Researchers assumptions on participant’s perceptions + emotions + thoughts can reduce validity (researchers cannot be certain that the participants processed them in a certain way) 4. Clinical or Case Study Method Berk (2013) p 127 – “From the outset, display many complex abilities”. Consider how these capabilities contribute to the formation of the first social relationships during the newborn period + infancy - Discuss the nature of infant’s capabilities - Relate the characteristics of newborns and infants to their skilled and capable nature - Indicate how these capabilities may contribute to the forming of social relationships with parents, caregivers, siblings and adults 1. Reflexes 2. States 20 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING QUESTION THREE: Introduction  Infancy = period of dev that spans over 1st year of life  Infants = competent + innate drive to master their world  New-borns = wide range of capabilities – crucial to survival + evoke care + attention from adults  Following are primary responses/ behavioural patterns are common to infants regardless of enviro influences  = an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation  Reflexes are the neonate’s most obvious organised patterns of behaviour  Some reflexes have a survival value and others form the foundation for voluntary movement and some help parents and infants establish gratifying interaction  Rooting, sucking, Moro and palmar grasp reflexes helps new-borns interaction with the caregiver  New-born may orientate his head towards mother’s nipple/ teat + sucks well is pleasing to any mother  Aids bonding + mother feels competent  An infant that has difficulty feeding, is distressing for mother + child  Moro reflex = also known as embracing reflex, help infants cling to their mothers when they were carried about all day  Palmar grasp = helps infants hold onto their mothers – survival or close contact  Encourages parents to respond lovingly  Reflexes = reveal health of the baby’s nervous system  Most reflexes disappear in the first 6 months, as gradual increase in voluntary control over behaviour develops as cerebral cortex develops  Swimming reflexes = helps baby stay afloat in water  New-borns move in and out of 5 states of arousal or degrees of sleep and wakefulness 21 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Sleep-Crying:  These states are linked to interaction with others  New-born phase, infants sleep is mostly (50%) in the rapid-eye-movement state (REM) 22 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  REM phase of sleeping = vital for growth of CNS!! (Central Nervous System)  Essential – organised transition between REM and non-REM sleep if NOT infant’s sleep cycles are disturbed which could indicate brain damage  Disorganised sleep = disorganised behaviour, difficulty learning + eliciting caregiver interactions that enhance development  Sleep-waken pattern increasingly conforms to a circadian rhythm, a 24-hour schedule  Culture values influence!!  Collectivism versus individualism  Experience allows parents to distinguish between crying  Intensity + context – tell what the cry is for  Crying is communicating and a form of survival strategy  Mother – who has difficulty knowing the differences in crying, engages in less sensitive infant care thereby infants becoming uncooperative toddlers  A baby crying when hearing another baby crying – shows inborn capacity to react to another’s suffering  Don’t have to be a parent to hear an infant crying cause distress/ discomfort  Prompt response to crying = less crying over time  Crying doesn’t always elicit caring behaviour  Colic babies, babies with experienced prenatal + birth complications + brain damage babies cry = unpleasant/ shrill/ piercing  Likely to be abused by parents – parents become angry/ frustrated and resentful  Adult response to crying:  Sound stimulates strong feelings of arousal and discomfort in most adults, male + female, parent or nonparent  Innately programmed response (probably) babies receive care + protection for survival  Varies intensities of cries produce different levels of physiological arousal in adults  These adaptive reactions help ensure that an infant in danger will quickly get help  Soothing:  Contradictory thoughts concerning parent’s responsiveness in soothing a baby’s cries one thought is that the baby being brought into close contact with the caregiver  Ensure the infants basic needs are met but that the infant will learn alternate methods to communicating  Some believe that prompt response will not lessen crying  Abnormal Behaviour:  Most parents will respond positively to infant’s call for help sometimes  Cry = unpleasant and parents equal frustrated  A high pithed grating cry can disrupt empathic feelings from parents 25 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING - Reactions are imperative for survival = milk best supports child development, they will enjoy - Human infants smell is less developed at birth than other mammals however, when a baby drinks from their mother’s breast, if the breast has been cleaned recently and does not have the natural smell, the baby can be put off by the change in scent and will look for the next breast which unwashed breast - Babies will prefer their own mothers breast over another lactating women (smell)  C) Hearing - New-borns can hear a wide variety of noises at birth, this increases in the first few months - Infants will turn their eyes and head to directions of sound - This will allow infant to explore environment - Often the infant’s mothers voice is preferred due to hearing it in utero - Babies will listen better to new speech that has syllable patterns - When an infant responds to sounds, this will encourage parents to talk to the infant  D) Balance - 3 types of stimulation for to change body posture - Optical-Flow Stimulation = Occurs from movement in the visual field - Proprioceptive Stimulation = Sensations through the skin, i.e. foots, joints and muscles - Vestibular Stimulation = Sending specific electric messages to a nerve in the ear that maintains balance - New-borns adapt their head movements to optical flow - Postural adjustments can happen unconsciously - New-borns have balance which they further develop as they age through motor control and experience day-to-day  E) Vision - Exploring environment, humans depend greatly on vision (more than any other sense) - At birth, vision = less developed sense - Optic nerve has not matured enough, several years in order too - Muscles of lens = adjust focus on distance are very weak - Therefore, new-borns cannot focus their eyes well and their VISUAL ACUITY or fineness of discrimination is very limited - Constantly scanning the environment and stimuli will enhance perception which in turn also enhances scanning - 3 aspects of vision to be developed: depth, pattern and object perception - Perceiving Depth = ability to judge distance of objects from one another and ourselves - Around the time babies start to crawl, they begin to determine the difference between shallow surfaces and avoid drop-offs - Two things (cues) help determine depth = monocular and binocular 26 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING - Monocular – Use one eye to provide info to the brain about distance and depth - Binocular – Uses both eyes to provide info to brain about depth and distance - More sensitive age the new-born ages to 2/3 months old - Kinetic depth cues = observer (baby) is still/stationary but the object is moving/in motion 27 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING - Babies will blink defensively when an object comes near them, around 3 or 4 weeks old - Pictorial depth cues = 7-month olds are sensitive to this - Crawling = most infants can distinguish between shallow surfaces and avoid drop-offs - Infants crawling = better at remembering object locations and finding hidden objects - Crawling promotes brain organisation + strengthens the neural connections - Crawling also helps infants understand consequences and future-thinking/orientation, they are more aware of falling etc. Become more independent - Pattern Perceptions = new-borns prefer patterns rather than plain stimuli - As they age, prefer more complex patterns - See more faces than other stimuli teaching the brain to pick up and detect faces and prefer attractive ones - Prefer their mother’s face over another woman’s faces - Moving objects = Intermodal Stimulation/Perception - Sensory system, stimulating more than one sensory system - Helps babies selectively attend and make sense of surroundings - IP = helps make sense of these running streams of light, sounds, tactile, odor and taste information which is perceived by integrated WHOLES - Example = Mother touches her baby and smiles, means the baby becomes more attentive, baby requires both vocal + visual to understand if positive or negative - 7-month olds can remember associations between sound + object better when it is heard and seen together at the same time - Parents talking to children encourages baby and their readiness for language and also a closer, emotional bond between parent and baby  Conclusion = - In view of findings, it is quite clear that stimulating the physical surroundings and warm caregiving that is responsive to the infants self-initiated efforts to promote active exploration of the environment + earlier attainment of developmental milestones 30 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Once hemispheres lateralised, abilities cannot be recovered to same extent 3. Deprivation and Enrichment  Animal studies  Demonstrate sensitive period: kittens kept in the dark during 4th week, severe, permanent brain damage  Research = shows that the brains of animals brought up in stimulating environments from birth are larger compared to those who are brought up in an isolated environment with little stimulation  Unethical to deprive infants intentionally for studies thereby making information and research quite difficult. Research mostly done with children who have been abused etc.  Stimulating surroundings & warm care-giving promotes active exploration of environment & attainment of milestones (research)  Babies reared in deprived families/ institutions remain below average. Physical and psychological development. Display emotional and behavioural problems throughout childhood  No evidence to indicate overly stimulating environment is better, rather balance = key  Example = Romanian orphanages found that after 2 years of malnourishment, prone to infection, and impaired in all domains of development – those adopted at 6 months old had the most impressive recovery after good care by adoptive families  Also showed that the babies who had little stimulation early in life had damaged the brain  However, deprived institutional care for these 2 years will permanently undermine all aspects of an infant’s psychological development  Energy + Nutritional Needs  Due to the nutrition needed for babies to continue to develop their organs and so on, extra calories are needed much more than what their weight would suggest  Studies show that even after malnutrition, kids given a better, improved diet still did not help them “catch-up” on certain developments therefore suggesting that malnutrition interfered with the growth permanently (loss in brain weight, scoring low on intelligence tests, poor fine motor coordination and poor concentration)  These findings helped government develop food programmes for the poor/ underprivileged  WWII & Famine  World war 2 gave scientists the opportunity to study malnutrition and famine  Linked the sensitivity period to nutrition  Miscarriages in first trimester by woman who were malnourished increased  Woman who carried past the first trimester gave birth to underweight children with small heads  Poorer diet of mothers = the greater loss in brain weight  Also vitamin-mineral enrichment is extremely important too 31 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 4. Infancy: Sensitive Period  Brain stimulation is vital during periods in which it is growing most rapidly  Brain is sponge-like in first few years, deprivation results in reduced brain size, impairments in all domains of psychological development  Two types of brain development:  Experience-Expectant = expectant brain growth = rapidly development organisation on ordinary experiences (see, touch, hear language and sounds, move, and explore)  Experience-Dependent = Dependent brain growth – extends throughout our lives  Over-stimulation and Under-Stimulation can threaten the development!!! 5. Quality of Care-Giving:  Sensitive care-giving predictor of strong emotional development  Developing brain is vulnerable – to drug exposure, environment toxins, poor diet, chronic stress  Considerations support the concept that infancy is a sensitive period of development Conclusion:  Sensitive period = represents a widow within, which effects of environmental stimulation on brain structure and function are maximised  Infants are a lot more receptive to specific environmental stimuli at this time  This issue is extremely controversial, due to ethical reasons and many theorists believing that developmental delays can be overcome with the right conditions / events  Brain development research showed us that stimulation does affect the neural connections in the brain and during this energy and nutrition are needed to strengthen these connections Discuss: - Psychological impact of maturational timing on adolescent’s adjustment - Also refer to gender-differences and, - Possible short-term and long-term consequences Guideline in Tut102: Include discussion on gender-related differences as well as short and long-term consequences which early maturation on the one hand, and late maturation on the other hand may have for the psychological adjustment of adolescents. Textbook = page 208-210 32 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING QUESTION FIVE: 1. Pubertal Timing:  The timing of puberty has a physical and psychological impact on an adolescent Females = Start puberty around 10 years and finish around 14 years old, however, some girls may start as early as 8 years and finish as old as 15 years old Menarche = the first occurrence of menstruation, a major sign of puberty, however, menstruation is actually the peak of puberty and not the beginning (puberty starts a while before first menstruation)  Menstruation occurs after a girl has peaked in strength and height spurts (ensures big and strong enough for childbearing body)  Often it takes 12-18 months after first menstruation for an ovum to be released during ovulation Males = Start puberty around 1 ½ years after females begin Spermarche (first ejaculation) = Occurs after the height spurt begins, however it occurs earlier in the cycle of puberty than when menarche occurs for girls Initial fertility = Boys semen contains very little sperm causing reduced fertility, just the same as girls not releasing an ovum for first 12-18 months 2. Several Studies: Males: Early Maturing = relaxed, independent, self-confident, physically attractive, popular, athletic, many hold leadership positions (although well-adjusted had significantly more psychological stress than late maturing & problems: smoking, sexual activity, drinking, aggression, delinquency) Males: Late Maturing = Expressed more anxiety, depressed mood Females: Early Maturing = unpopular, withdrawn, lack self-confidence, anxious, prone 35 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Smaller social networks  Lower life satisfaction into early adulthood compared to on-time counterparts  Prone to greater alcohol abuse, lower educational attainment than their agemates  Link between early-maturing girls + childhood, family conflict and harsh parenting  Therefore, early-maturing girls may enter adolescence with emotional and social difficulties  Achievement difficulties and inappropriate activity also are prone to continue into adulthood  Researchers also believe that impaired social relationships play a major role in the long-term negative outcome Boys:  Early-maturing boys tend to adjust quite well, and while may become depressed this subsides after the age of 13 generally  Link between family conflict and harsh parenting and early puberty for boys isn’t as strong as it is for girls 5. Eating Disorders  Link between early maturing girls and eating disorders  Due to low body image, dissatisfaction with their body image (early maturers)  Become concerned with weight and thinness and at high risk for developing eating disorders i.e. anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa  These problems are life threatening and persistent  A primary contributing factor is the societal image that thin is beautiful which contributes to the poor body image especially of early maturing girls Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Evaluate the validity of Piaget’s description of the senori-motor stage of cognitive development on the basis of recent research evidence - Study the description of the sensori-motor stage of development - Criticism of Piaget’s view of sensori-motor stage of development - Refer to characteristics of the sensori-motor sage but don’t give a separate discussion of Piaget’s Theory Textbook = Pages 228 36 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING QUESTION SIX.ONE 1. Sensori-Motor Stage of Development Overview Stage: Sensori-Motor Stage Age: Birth-2 years old Major Characteristics:  Understands the world through sensory and motor experiences  Learns object permanence – object continues to exist even when not visible  Has symbolic thought  First of the four stages that Piaget proposed  Babies, during this stage understand world/ think through = sensory and motor experiences  Sensory = senses (touch, taste, smell, hear, see)  Motor = development of bones, muscles and ability to move and also manipulate their environment  Thus, building the basic construction of knowledge Circular Reaction  Provide a special means of adapting their first schemes  Involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby’s own motor activity  Reaction = circular, because infant tries to repeat the event again and again, a sensorimotor response that originally occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme  Example: 2-month-old accidentally makes a smacking noise with mouth after eating, intrigued they try again and continue to smack lips until they become experts at it  Initially the infant centers the circular reaction around their own body, but later they turn it outwards towards objects  In second year = experimental + creative 37 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 2. Piaget’s Developmental Substages 1. Reflexive Schemes (Birth-1 Month = New-born reflexes) 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 Months = Simple motor habits centered around the infant’s own body; limited anticipation of events) 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 Months = Actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world; imitation of familiar behaviours) 4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 Months = Intentional or goal-directed behaviour, imitation of behaviours) 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 Months = Exploration of the properties of objects, ability to search in several locations for a hidden object) 6. Mental Representation (18months-2 years = make-believe play, internal depictions of events, sudden solution to problems) 3. Repeating Chance Behaviours  New-born reflexes – substage 1 babies suck and grasp  Around 1 month, as babies enter substage 2, start to gain voluntary control over their actions through primary circular reaction, by repeating chance behaviours which is mostly motivated by basic needs  Leading to some basic/simple motor habits i.e. sucking fist or thumb  Can anticipate events – stops crying when mother enters room because they know they are going to be fed soon  Substage 3 – (4-8 months) infants sit up and become skilled at reaching for + manipulating objects – strengthens secondary circular reaction 4. Intentional Behaviours  Substage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months) = combine simple schemes into new, more complex action sequences  Behaviours are no longer random  Engage in, intentional, or goal-directed behaviour = coordinating to deliberately solve problems  Example – Piaget’s object-hiding task: Shows baby an attractive toy and then hides it behind his hand or under a cover, babies can find this object in this stage and by coordinating two schemes (pushing aside obstacle and grasping the toy)  This is called a means-end action sequence  Retrieving hidden objects means infants are beginning to master object permanence – the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight  However, babies still search in the first hiding place even if it has been moved therefore this awareness is still not perfectly clear  Object Permanence Research:  Violation-of-Expectation = Habituate babies to an environment and then use 40 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience that children can label with words 41 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 6. Criticism/ Weaknesses of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Development  Underestimated infants cognitive abilities – infants know a lot more about object’s properties  Object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight) can be understood a lot earlier than what Piaget stated  The influence of language on cognitive development was not as important as Piaget had stated – becomes important towards 2-3 years of age only  Expanding vocabularies can enhance conceptual skills  Researchers, not Piaget, now believe that infants have some sort of built-in cognitive equipment for making sense of experiences  But this too has criticism  A lot of evidence is based on the violation-of-expectation method  Piaget’s idea of adaption, organisation, and equilibrium is a simple explanation of how children’s cognition develops – in fact is much more complex than Piaget stated  Therefore Piaget gave a basis/foundation to understanding, and further research could then be done Comparisons of Cognitive Attainment of Infancy and Toddlerhood versus Piaget’s Substages  Infants are surprised at unfamiliar objects earlier than Piaget stated  Deferred imitation = present as early as 6 weeks – earlier than Piaget stated  Infants recognizing + manipulate small numbers without understanding them at 5 months  Infants do not only rely on sensorimotor abilities – their perceptions appear far ahead of any motor abilities Critically Compare the Views of Piaget and Vygotsky on Cognitive Development - Factors that influence or provoke further development - In view of both viewpoints, come to a conclusion on how cognitive development takes place Aspects to be focused on - Basic assumptions of both theories compared, note similarities and differences - Factors that influence/provoke further development in line with both theories (compared) - Considering both theories, give holistic idea in your own mind of how cog dev works - Conclude the controversary between P and V views on cog dev Textbook pg. 226 2. Piaget’s Theory 3. Vygotsky’s Theory 42 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING QUESTION SEVEN 1. Introduction  Cognition definition = Inner processes + products of the mind that lead to “knowing”  Cognitive development = Explains how the inborn intellectual capacities change into the capacities of an infant, child, adolescent and adult  Takes a constructivist approach: children learn about their world by interacting with it i.e. activities  Development = internal + individualistic  Children are active seekers of knowledge, want to learn  Speed of development stages = affected by genetics + environmental factors  Nature versus. Nurture = evident, more emphasis on nature because infants do not start out as cognitive beings they learn through INTERACTING with enviro + influences  Development takes place in stages: children in certain stages have similar brain maturity and social experiences  Stages are in a fixed order  Development is discontinuous = Child moves through series of developmental stages  Stages are universal = assume that all children follow the same sequence of development  Development follows one course  Limited social and cultural influences 45 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING environment correctly  Two things may occur: Cognitive equilibrium or disequilibrium  CE = Children are no longer changing, they assimilate more than they can accommodate 46 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  DE = Rapid growth, existing schemes do not fit with new info, they accommodate  Once they modify their schemes, move back towards assimilation using newly changed schemes  Going back and forth between equilibrium and disequilibrium = equilibration B) Organisation  Schemes also change through organisation  O = a process that occurs internally, apart from direct contact with the environment  Once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system  Piaget = the way children draw from external experiences into their internal frame of reference  Vygotsky – contrast = common and mutually created grounds on which communication and other social interaction takes place which is the point of learning/cog development Vygotsky:  CONTRAST = believes development is continuous of in-born basic mental capacities + because of this, cognitive maturity which allows LANGUAGE to emerge  But, its not cognitive maturity that allows cog development instead its development and emerging of language  Language acquisition allows for rapid cognitive development (stage-like)  Having conversations and dialogues with individuals with more knowledge allows for children to master culturally important tasks  Piaget acknowledges language but does not state it is the most important task, however, Vygotsky believes it is the foundation of all higher cognitive processes  Berk believes that Piaget has severely underestimated the role language plays  Vygotsky – young children’s private speech = what they say to themselves  Private speech = helps them think about mental activities + behaviour and select course of action  Piaget said that private speech ends with age – Vygotsky disagrees  Piaget viewed private speech as a milestone to be passed  Vygotsky viewed private speech as a basis = further cognitive development + it is ever-present but has now become INTERNALIZED  Zone of proximal development = range of tasks to difficult to be done alone, but possible with assistance of adults/more skilled peers  Language is a base, children learn then within the zone of proximal development 5. Further Cognitive Development, Social Interaction – Must have certain features A) Intersubjectivity  Two participants begin a task with different understanding, and then arrive at a shared 47 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING understanding  Try to understand other’s opinion  Evidence early in Exchanges of emotional signals + Parent-Infant mutual gazes 50 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING A) Brain Development:  Neurological changes, synaptic growth + myelination, improves efficiency of thought 51 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Which leads to the readiness for each stage  Genetics and processing work together B) Practice with Schemes and Automization:  Case says that Piaget schemes = child’s mental strategies  Each stage, repeated use, schemes become automatic which frees working-memory resources for combining existing ones and generating new ones  This is a clarified view of Piaget’s assimilation and accommodation C) Foundation of Central Conceptual Structures (CCS):  Once schemes of a Piaget stage become automatic  + brain develops = increments (increase) processing speed  Now there is enough space in working memory to consolidate schemes into an improved representational form  Because of this the CCS is generated  CCS = network of concepts/ relations that permit them to think about a wide range of situations in more advanced way  Thus, moving to next stage of development due to processing efficiency expanding 3. Concluding Robbie Case’s Theory  Case proposes that cognition starts simple and moves to complex  Or concrete to formal operation  Add an information-processing account = many understandings appear in a specific situation at different times rather than all being mastered at once  = continuum acquisition  He said: different forms of the same insight vary in processing demands  And later require more working-memory capacity  He said: children’s experiences vary widely and practice allows CCS structures to become advanced  Case explains Piaget’s unevenness in cog development  Case explains: this theory can help children who are academically behind to learn more effectively  Unique theory + shows how children’s basic capacity to practice and efforts to reorganise their thinking work together to produce development 4. Introduction to Robert Siegler’s Model of Strategy  Model of Strategy is an evolutionary perspective  In essence:  Children use many strategies when given a challenge/ problem to solve 52 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Experience allows some strategies to be selected  Strategies that are used often ‘survive’ and those that are no longer used ‘die’  This process produced adaptive problem-solving techniques 55 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Offers a genetic/ biological component, Piaget did not  Explains well mental processes by linking it to working memory-capacity  Robert Siegler Evaluated:  Shows how development can evolve through experience  This makes up for the stage-like approach, continuous change in children’s thinking Information-processing?? Memory development can be attributed to many factors such as the development of attention, memory strategies, and metacognition Discuss this statement by referring to relevant theory and research findings. Guidelines:  Overall idea of development of memory capacity in children (292-307pg)  Discuss: development of attention, memory strategies, retrieving info, knowledge base (metacog) and improved self-regulation 56 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING QUESTION NINE: (20 MARKS) Memory = Encoding, storing and retrieving information 1. Attention  Fundamental to human thinking  It determines what information is will be used/ considered in a task  Attention & Age:  Young children = struggle to focus, easily distracted and therefore spends a short time on a task  As children age, young adults, adults = spend more time on tasks, pay more attention and attention becomes more selective, adaptive and planful  Attention & Brain:  Sustained, longer attention due to development or growth of frontal lobes  Suggesting, questioning, commenting on child’s interests allows for growth and maturing both cognitively and socially  Concentrating better = benefits language, problem solving, interacting socially  Planning:  Thinking about an action ahead of time, allocating attention to reach a goal  Planning + Age: Babies are future orientated (routine)  Preschool children = can make and follow a simple plan when the tasks are familiar  Attention is managed with other cog processes and planning shows us this  ADHD = problems with planning and with attention  Types of Attention:  Sustained Attention  Increases sharply around 2-3 ½ years  Attraction to new aspects declines and sustained attention improves  Selective Attention  Sustained increases, better at focusing on aspects relevant to their goals  Adaptive Attention  Children become more capable of goal-directed behaviour 57 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Older children = easier adapt their attention to task  Children adapt attention to changes in their own learning 60 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  3. Reconstruction = recoding info in the system or during retrieval  Fuzz-trace Theory:  When info is reconstructed automatically which creates a vague version called a gist  Gist = holds important content without details  Allows less space in working memory 4. Knowledge Base (Metacognition)  Semantic Memory: Relating to language or logic  Organized and hierarchical general knowledge system  Language, facts and rules  Does not store where and when info  Develops earlier than episodic (it contributes to episodic development)  Children with better memory = more knowledge  Knowledgeable children use memory strategies with little effort  Use existing info to clarify new info  Episodic Memory: When and Where?  Recollection of experienced events that occur at a certain time and place (where and when)  Episodic Memory and Age:  Infants start gaining semantic memory through categories/ word meaning  Encoding events + retrieving info is limited in children compared to adults  Children who gain knowledge through experiences = recall better  Child’s sense of self needs to be developed for semantic memory  Types:  Scripts = memory for reoccurring events, general description of what occurs and when  Scripts used to interpret and organise everyday experiences  Autobiographical Memory = representations of single events  Long-lasting as they are filled with personal meaning  Children need a self-image and need to combine their experiences into meaningful and organized life story  Elaborative style – following child’s lead and discussing the topics of interest  Repetitive style- repeating same question regardless of child’s interest Metacognition:  MC = awareness and understanding of various aspect of thought  Metacognition Knowledge:  = mental activity – what it means to think  Children age, they become aware of their cog capacities, strategies for processing 61 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING info  MC expands as children develop a theory of mind = understanding that people are mental beings 62 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  MC becomes more complex and integrated as children develop  MC uses high levels of cognitive function: memory, attention, reasoning, problems solving  Knowledge of Cognitive Capacities:  2 years old = as vocab expands they use words to refer to their internal states (want, think, remember and pretend)  3 years old = Realize that thinking happens inside their head  6 years old = less attention to process of thinking but rather the outcome of thought  6-7 years old = understand that concentration allows them to do a task well  10 years old = aware that remembering/ knowing and understanding is more certain than guessing/compare or estimate  Knowledge of Strategies:  School-age = conscious of mental strategies than preschool children  10 years old = better at telling good and bad apart despite outcome  Middle childhood = think about variables interacting 5. Improved Self-Regulation  = the process of continually monitoring the process towards a goal  Planning, checking outcome, evaluating unsuccessful efforts  Understanding memory strategies makes them more successful!!  Child applies a memory strategy leads to better/more knowledge leads to enhancing self-regulation  SR – improves gradually, continuous evaluation of effort and progress  Good SR skills = more confidence in their ability and better academic success  SR can be encouraged through problem solving – allowing children to solve problems rather than provide them with answers (teachers and parents) 5. Cattell 6. Carroll 7. Componential Analysis 65 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 4. Thurstone  Multiple-Factor Theory  Factor analysis on more than 50 intelligence tests using students indicated that separate and unrelated factors exist  Referred to as primary mental abilities  Intelligence comprised of 7 distinct primary mental abilities = verbal meaning, perceptual speed, reasoning, number, rote memory, word fluency, spatial visualisation  Contributions: Developed statistical technique of multifactor-analysis  Limitations: Final version of theory was a compromise which included a general factor and seven specific abilities  Two overall abilities in addition to “g”  Crystallised Intelligence = Skills that are relatively static, depends on accumulated knowledge + experience, good judgement, social customs  On a test this is vocab, general information, arithmetic problems  “gc”  Fluid Intelligence = info-processing, problem solving skills  Influenced by conditions of the brain  “gf”  Contributions: Important implications for issue of cultural bias in intelligence testing  Tests aimed at reducing cultural bias emphasize fluid over crystalized items  Three-Stratum Theory: elaborates the models proposed by Spearman, Thurstone and Cattell  Pyramid representation of intelligence with “g” at the top, second tier are broad abilities and the third tier are narrow abilities  1. “g” Factor  2. Broad abilities = basic bio components of intelligence, fluid + crystal, general memory, learning  3. Narrow abilities = special abilities, sequential reasoning, vocab knowledge, memory span  Contributions: Useful framework for researchers seeking to understand mental-test performance in cog-processing terms  Limitations: No tests test all factors of Carroll at this time 66 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Combo of info processing and psychometric approaches  Looks for relations between the info processing + children’s intelligence test performance 67 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 8. Sternberg  Triarchic theory of successful intelligence  Three broad, interacting intelligence sub-theories  1) Analytical Intelligence (Info-processing skills)  2) Creative Intelligence (Solve novel problems)  3) Practical Intelligence (Intellectual skills in everyday situations)  A balance of all 3 = success in life  Contributions/Highlights: Views intelligence as within the child as well as outer forces too  Highlights the complexity of intelligent behaviour and limitations of current intelligence tests  Mental tests may undermine intellectual strengths  Limitations: very broad, huge focus on social skills rather than forms of intelligence 9. Gardener  Theory of multiple intelligences  Defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that allows individuals to solve problems, create and discover new knowledge  Through culturally values activities  Rejects g factor  8 independent factors: linguistics, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily- kinaesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal and intrapersonal  Each intelligence has a biological basis + distinct course of development + different end-state performance  Education transforms the raw potential into a mature social role  Emphasis on cultural values + learning opportunities  Contributions: Cultural activities + learning opport. are recognized as having huge emphasis and role  Neurological research support is ample  Limitations: excellence requires combo of intelligences; certain gifted people have broad rather than specialized fields  Criticism about independence of intelligences 10. Conclusion  Researchers combine psychometric and information processing approach to conduct componential analysis  CA has highlighted cog processes, flexible attention + memory + reasoning strategies  Which are unrelated to test score but greatly emphasis skills that contribute to intelligence  Relationships between cog processes and mental test scores = help isolate cog skills that 70 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Kinship research = says heredity is important. Correlations also show environment is clearly involved 71 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Environment involved, show greater correlations when living together than when apart  Race and cultural research show that populations are similar in these findings  However, socioeconomic factors may have an impact Heritability of Intelligence  Genetics does have an influence on individual intelligence, the extent is not sure  Amount of genes shared between family members varies  Researchers state there is a joint influence of genetics and enviro I IQ  Hereditability estimates don’t show how complex the processes are through which genes and enviro influence during IQ development  Twin studies:  Genetics are somewhat responsible for differences in mental tests performance  Age related correlations for identical twins increases with age but for fraternal twins it drops  Paternal twins = egg split, same genes  Fraternal twins = two separate eggs fertilized  Environment is involved in these correlations as there is a greater correlation when living together than when living apart Ethnic/ Socio-economic Variation:  Research = Factors such as: low income, poverty, weak/absent prenatal care, family stress, low-quality schools, lack of community support will prevent children from obtaining their full genetic potential  Geneticist Richard Lewontin = compared seeds in soil 3. Adoption Studies  Two types of information looked into: 1. Correlation of IQ’s adopted children with their biological parents and adoptive parents, too look into the environment influence 2. Changes of IQ as a result of growing up in an advantaged adoptive family, for evidence on the power of enviro  Findings reveal = when young children are adopted into caring + stimulating homes, their IQ’s substantially rise when compared to IQ’s of those nonadopted children who remain economically deprived  Adopted children benefit varyingly  Texas Adoption Project: Children of two extreme groups of biological mothers  Those with IQ’s < 95 and IQ’s > 120  These children were adopted by parents with above average income and education 72 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Children of low IQ’s bio mothers scored above average in IQ test = positive effect of environment 75 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING Evidence Against Chomsky’s Theory/ Nativist Viewpoint  Just because children don’t learn through imitation alone, this does not mean they must have a LAD  Language learning could be through general learning and understanding abilities and interactions with other people  Researchers = difficult to specify universal grammar  No complete description of abstract grammatical structures  No set of rules accounts for all grammatical forms  Unclear how children can spontaneously link rules to a string of words  Unclear why the rules are not applied across the board by children, this suggests more learning + discovery involved than what Chomsky said  Chomsky pays no attention to: quality of lang input, or to social experiences which support lang progress  Chomsky does not regard child cog capacity as important Summary of Nativist Viewpoint:  Children assume responsibility of language learning  Focus of the system is grammar  Children and adults produce and understand an unlimited range of complicated sentences  In order to do this, need a LAD  This is an innate system to build sentences when they have enough words  Within LAD, universal grammar exists (built in storehouse of rules that apply to human lang)  LAD – language processing  Acceptable: Children ability to invent new language systems 2. Interactionist Viewpoint  Two types:  1. Information-Processing Perspective:  Language develops by exposing neural networks to lang inputs  A lot of the info on IPP is from research with connectionist or artificial neural network models  These neural networks are exposed to various lang inputs  Over time, neural connections represent adult usage strengthen, primitive connections weaken  This system/network is not biased to learn lang. Rather: children make sense of 76 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING complex lang using powerful cog capacities  2. Social Interaction:  Strong desire to understand + be understood by others 77 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Rich lang enviro combines to help children discover the functions + regularities of lang  Acceptable: Advances the discussion beyond Skinner + Chomsky and opens new paths/topics to discover  Limitations: Lab work with children cannot be generalised in everyday context  Work with neural networks = theoretical mostly  No common belief re: whether children make sense of their complex lang enviro by applying general capacities or whether they have capacities specifically tuned to lang  Or whether they have capacities specifically tuned to lang 3. Conclusion  Both believe stimuli causes a response  Stimuli may be: behavioural, social, environmentally orientated, yet both theories bases development on the creation of some form of stimuli  Through ideas come to a conclusion: children develop through diff stages  One situation/stage may require behaviourist operant condition and another situation/stage may require nativist or info-processing  Because of stimuli: appears certain that the tendency for the more theoretical proposals to include an aspect of social interaction 3. Egocentrism: Piaget 4. Selman’s Stages of Perspective Taking 5. Other Assessments: Perspective Taking 6. Perspective Taking + Social Behaviour 80 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING o Understand emotions of others, recognise false beliefs, develop communication skills, build self-concept, build self-esteem, attain person perception + recognise inferring intentions o Ability to empathise with poor, oppressed + sick requires an advanced form of perspective taking o Could be considered the opposite of empathy = pre-schoolers inability to take the viewpoint of another o However, toddlers do have some capacity for perspective taking around 2 years old when they become consciously aware o 5 stage sequence of perspective taking skills o Establish connection btwn cog dev and perspective taking o Using Selman’s stages and comparison to Piaget cog dev stages – we can establish the connection between cog development and perspective taking o S stages: Social informational perspective taking (stage 1) and self-reflective perspective taking (stage 2) = at this stage have passed concrete but not operational tasks o = Ability to step into another’s shoes + realize others can do the same o Children: Increasingly formal operational tend to be Selman’s stage 3 (third-part perspective taking) and stage 4 (societal perspective taking) o = Step outside a 2-person situation, imagine a third party may view the situation o Prior knowledge affects ability to understand new info – 6 years old o Realize pre-existing beliefs affect their viewpoints – 7/8 years old o Research on PT: older children + adolescence focus on recursive thought (form of perspective taking that involves thinking about what another person is thinking) o Thinking recursively (stage 3 and 4) improves in middle childhood = making interactions reciprocal o Research: Perspective-taking varies in ages, studies show when adults/peers explain their own viewpoints and encourage children to consider others contributes to age differences o Children: good perspective-taking skills = more empathetic, sympathetic, get along 81 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING with others, and thereby are better liked o Piaget’s tasks are mastered somewhat earlier than the related perspective-taking level o Suggesting: additional cog and social capacities contribute to gains in perspective taking o Piaget: Concrete Operation Stage (7-11 years old) = engage in decentration 82 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING o Decentration = recognizing that a change in one aspect is compensated for by a change in another aspect o PT skills help children get along with others o Cog dev contributes to advances in PT o When we anticipate others points of view, can also respond to needs effectively o Good PT skills = better thinking of effective ways to handle difficult social situations o Kohlberg = both cog and PT development are necessary though not sufficient for moral development 85 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING No Crisis/ Exploration Crisis Experienced No commitment (Still exploring) IDENTITY CONFUSION: - Haven’t been through crisis - Not worried - No direction - No clear values/goals - Still too overwhelming IDENTITY MORATORIUM: - Exploring, getting info - No commitment - Start to question exclusiveness of their religion/parents when they see similarities in others Commitment Made (Personal Commitment) IDENTITY FORECLOSURE: - Haven’t been through crisis - Commitment without exploring - Accepted already made identities - Cannot explain commitment to religious beliefs (beliefs are our parents/teachers) IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT: - Explored - Committed to a choice - Sense of psychological well-being - Can explain choice or commitment 5. How Identity Statuses Influence Psychological Well-Being A) Identity Diffusion:  Give in to luck/fate  Don’t care attitude  Academic difficulty  Likely to use drugs/alcohol  Hopeless re: future  Depression / suicide risk B) Identity Foreclosure:  Often stuck  Adjustment difficulties  Rigid intolerance  Fear of rejection C) Identity Moratorium:  Anxious about challenges  Use autonomous info gathering when making decisions + solving problems 86 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING D) Identity Achievement:  Higher sense of self esteem  Abstract + critical thinking  Advanced moral reasoning 87 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 6. Conclusion  Research: Identity achievement + moratorium = healthier routes to a mature self- definition  Well-structured identity = integrates various domains = experience a sense of personal continuity + social connection  Have higher self-esteem  Engage in abstract and critical thinking  Greater similarity between ideal self and real self  More advanced in moral reasoning  Research: Foreclosure or diffusion  Have adjustment issues/difficulties  Foreclosure = Dogmatic and inflexible and intolerant  Diffused = indecisive, follow others choices/ways  Due to hopelessness, therefore at a high risk of alcohol and drug abuse 90 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  End of early childhood, children with history of consistent exposure to caring adults = internalized prosocial rules from repeated observation + encouragement from others  + will behave pro-socially whether model is around or not Discuss Piaget’s two stages of moral dev. (heteronymous morality and autonomous morality) Indicate differences between these two stages in terms of children’s moral reasoning 91 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING C) Piaget (8 marks) Introduction  Piaget = open ended clinical interviews to study morality  Questioned 5-13 years old Swiss children  Identified two broad stages of moral understanding Heteronymous Morality (5-10 years old)  Child view rules: handed down by authorities, permanent existence, unchangeable and require strict obedience  Young children think all people view rules the same  Moral understanding is characterised by realism  Children regard rules as external features of reality rather than cooperative principles that can be modified Two Factors that Limit Moral Understanding 1. Power of adults to insist that children comply unquestionably 2. Cognitive immaturity – limited capacity to imagine other perspectives  When judging an act’s wrongfulness younger children focus on outcomes rather than intent to do harm Autonomous Morality (10 years and older)  Children view rules: no longer fixed, but flexible socially agreed principles that can be revised to suit the will of the majority  Peer disagreements children realise that moral action can differ  Intentions serve basis for judging  Older children develop ideal reciprocity = allows them to realise rules can be reinterpreted and revised Autonomy means for the young child:  Cog development  Gradual release form adult control  Peer interaction  Lead children to transition into second stage: rules are viewed flexible, socially agreed upon and able to be revised  Peer disagreements = facilitating process 92 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING  Children interact as equals with peers = learn to settle conflicts + develop ideal reciprocity A) PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL B) CONVENTIONAL LEVEL C) POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL 95 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING 1. Disequilibrium = actively grappling with moral issues + noticing weakness in ones thinking 2. Gains in perspective taking  Morality = externally controlled (same as Piaget)  Children accept rules of authority figures  Actions judged by consequences  Behaviour results in punishment = bad; behaviour results in reward = good Stage 1: The Punishment + Obedience Orientation o Children: difficult to consider two points in a moral dilemma o Focus on fear of authority Stage 2: The Instrumental Purpose Orientation o Children: Become aware people can have diff perspectives o Self interest = ill do something for you, you do something for me  Continue to regard conforming to social rules important but no longer for self- interest  Maintaining social system = ensures positive human relationships + social order Stage 3: The Good-Boy Good-Girl Orientation o Children: maintain approval of friends/ relatives by being a good person (loyal, trustworthy, nice) o Capacity to view two-person relationship impartially Stage 4: The Social-Order-Maintaining Orientation o Take society laws into account o Laws should not be disobeyed, vital for ensuring societal orders and cooperative relations  Move beyond unquestioning support of rules  Define reality in terms of abstract principles Stage 5: The Social-Contract Orientation o Can imagine alternatives to their own social order + emphasize fair procedures o Good situation = laws consistent with human rights and followed out willingly 96 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle Orientation o The right action is defined by self-chosen ethical principles of conscience that are valid for all humanity – regardless of law + social agreement o Equal consideration of claims of all human beings Research: Support for K = show movement through the stages and would be related to age, cog development and gains in perspective taking Age-Related Changes:  K: 20-yearlong study is the most convincing with .78 correlation between age + moral judgement  Almost all participants moved through stages (predicted order)  Other studies confirm these findings  When using real-life dilemmas age-related change is less predictable  No clear evidence of preconventional level (stage 6) exists Stages Organized Whole?  Organised whole = people use the same level of moral reasoning across all tasks/situations  Research showed other strategies when faced with dilemmas:  Discussing with others, relying on intuition, religion, spirituality Everyday:  Everyday moral reasoning does correspond to findings but at lower rate than hypothetical dilemmas  This is mostly likely due to practicalities and personal risk factors Cognitive Prerequisites for Moral Reasoning:  Moral maturity, both Kohlberg + Piaget, positively correlates with IQ  K: Cognitive and perspective-taking skills necessary but not sufficient conditions for each moral stage Criticism: o Key crit: belief that moral maturity is not reached until postconventional level o Yet if people had to reach stage 5+6 = few people would measure up o Young + middle childhood = use preconventional for moral dilemmas: however, this underestimates moral reasoning 97 | P a g e CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (ALL 21 ESSAYS) UPDATED 2023/2024 BEST SCORE A+,EXAM FOR NURSING o Gilligan said the theory is over androcentric (focused on men) o Other psychologists argued: moral action is reached through formal reasoning o Social institutes: argue that people don’t take fairness, law and human rights into decision making