Analysis of Media Codes & Conventions: Visual, Audio, & Written Elements, Study notes of Acting

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Code  &  Conventions         2   CONTENTS Page 2 Contents Page 3 From the study design Page 4 Code & Conventions – Moving Image Page 5 Code & Conventions - Print Page 6 Code & Conventions - Advertising Page 7 Code & Conventions – Narrative: Story telling Page 8 Media Codes - List Page 9 Media Conventions - List Page 10 Media Codes - Heading Page 11 & 12 Camera Page 13 & 14 Acting Page 15 Setting Page 16 Mise-En-Scene Page 17 Editing Page 18 Lighting Page 19 & 20 Sound Page 21 Special Effects Page 22 Typography Page 23 & 24 Colour Page 25 Visual Composition Page 26 Text and Graphics Page 27 Media Conventions Heading Page 28 Story Principles Page 29 Opening, Development, Closure Page 30 Form and Structure Page 31 & 32 Character – Character & Ideology Page 33 Story Arc Page 34 Cause & Effect Page 35 Point Of View Page 36 The Structuring Of Time Page 37 Elements Of Page Layout Page 38 Paper stock for print Page 39 Titles & Credits Sequence Page 40 Hyperlinking & Mounting Page 41 Framing of images   5   Code & Conventions to Print • Layout – White space / Negative space • Colour • Images - Size & Position • Text - Typography • Composition & Layout • Paper stock • Framing • Distribution • Readership   6   Code Conventions of Advertising Symbolic Codes Mise En Scene, props, settings, costumes and colors. These codes help symbolize the meaning of something, for example if you see a very well dressed man in an elite sports car in an exotic location the audience would automatically think that he is successful and link the product with success. Written Codes Headlines, captions, speech bubbles, language style Technical Codes Camera techniques, framing, depth of field, lighting, exposure, sound and editing. These codes include camera angles, shots, lighting, editing and sound. Camera, position, angles and shots are can be used to show different perspectives. The lighting can be used to create an atmosphere and/or mood. Sound can be used for dialogue, as a voice over to speak about the product is or music also to create mood       7   Code Conventions of Storytelling   • Opening Development & Closure • Multiple Storylines • Narrative Possibilities • Character Development • Cause & Effect • Setting • Structuring of Time • Point Of View       10       MEDIA  CODES       Media codes are the physical elements that the audience experiences, which bring the narrative conventions to the media form.     11   CAMERA Camera- Techniques & qualities including shot selection, movement & focus. The way the camera moves, pans, the angle and the framing helps tell the story. It can provide an insight to the characters and their lives, place importance on or emphasise certain objects, events and actions, help set the mood of a scene and/or provide a point of view. ANGLE The angle of the camera is the angle from which the image is viewed. The straight on angle is the most common. The camera angle can have a major impact of how the audience will perceive a character, object or place. The high angle positions the audience looking down and the low angle positions the audience looking up. Low camera angles will often emphasise height or power, making a character look large and domineering. A high angle will often make character or object appear small and vulnerable. Camera angles can also identify a character’s point of view (not to be confused with point of view from which the narrative is presented) by taking a position that corresponds to that which we imagine that the character’s sight line would occupy. We see what the character would be seeing. This can be very effective in enhancing audience identification with character’s experiences. MOVEMENT How the camera moves will reveal information the audience. Panning from left to right or vice versa can be used to follow action, an actor’s sight line or reveal something of significance to the audience. The speed of the pan can have a dramatic effect, fast (zip pan); to indicate quick paced action while slow can indicate the opposite. Panning the camera can also be used for point of view of a character as it can imitate the movement of the spectator’s eye as they survey the scene around them. If the camera is mounted on a crane the audience is able to zoom in at odd angles to gain a better look at characters, objects or places. They will feel as if they have a bird’s eye or intimate view of the action. Also if the camera is on tracks or dolly it is able to follow the action and further engage the audience by enabling them to move with the characters and the action. DISTANCE/PLACEMENT The distance of the camera in the scene will dictate to the audience how involved they will become with the characters or settings. In general the closer the camera is to the subject the more importance and attention that the subject is given. For example in a romantic scene the most logical place for the camera is close to the lovers so that the audience can experience the intimacy of the moment. If it was presented only in a long shot the audience would be distanced and wonder why it was shot in this manner. The height and the distance of the camera from the subject can also have an effect on the meaning of a shot. SHOT SELECTION Extreme close-up – can be described as a very tight shot. It is a very dramatic shot that can be used to draw attention to fine detail or places importance to the detail it captures. Close-up – a close-up is not as tight as an extreme close-up but there is still very little background shown in the shot. Medium shot – more than one object or subject can be show in a medium shot. Actors are captured from the waist up and this shot is commonly used when there are two actors in the shot. Medium long shot – in this shot the subject in the foreground is equally balanced with the background. Long shot – this allows the subject to still be prominent although the background dominates the scene. HEIGHT The height of the camera can give the audience a varied perspective. This is not referring to angle, for the angle in this type of shot is usually straight on. LENS/FOCUS Alterations in focus can have a signifying effect. Most films use a deep depth of field in which both the foreground and backgrounds are in sharp focus. Hard focus invokes a very real and sharp image while soft focus provides a dreamlike or romantic effect. This could be used for close ups or big close ups to provide a more flattering image of the actor. It will also suggest romance and mystery to the audience. High Angle Worm’s Eye View A Perspective Point of View Ral Over The Shoulder Reverse Shot Orvis ena 12    15   SETTING The time (time period) and place in which the film's story occurs, including all of the other additional factors, including climate (season), landscape, people, social structures and economic factors, customs, moral attitudes, and codes of behaviour. Setting is a vital part of the story telling within the narrative. It provides answers and understanding to the audience. How a Director reveals the setting is crucial when discussing this story element. For example; Is there a train station on screen revealing the name of the city. Or does the Director choose to shoot the opening scene in a bustling, cold, windy, Manhattan city street in peak hour. Providing evidence to the audience that this film text will be set in New York in Winter. The media language to include when discussing setting are as follows: • Time period • Location • Climate / Season • Landscape / City / Country / Sea / Land / Desert • Culture / People • Social and Economical status • Moral attitudes or codes of behaviour       16   MISE-EN-SCENE Mise En Scene refers to the composition of everything visually within the physical boundaries of the shot / frame. The way in which figures and elements are moved around within a frame can provide many effects. Mise-en-scène also includes the positioning and movement of actors on the set, which is called blocking. Mise En scene can also be described as a look or style of a film (for example gothic), a mood or atmosphere in a whole film or an individual scene (for example a threatening feeling). Mise en scene refers to the visual elements in a frame including: Set design The look and the feel of the set can help establish audience expectations about the film. Set design is the setting of a scene, the objects (props) and the decor. Props are often to use to provide clues to the audience about characters and storylines. Sometimes props reappear from scene to scene reminding the audience of it significance. Sometimes these props can become motifs in the narrative. Set design can be used to amplify character emotion or the dominant mood of a film, or to establish aspects of the character. Lighting The intensity, direction, and quality of lighting have a major effect on the way an image is perceived, including mood, time of day or night, season or atmosphere. Space & Shot Selection The representation of space affects the reading of a film. When a character fills a frame the audience can usually be assured that they are a major character central or important to the narrative. Equal space given to two actors within a frame would indicate equal importance in the scene to these characters. Cramming the frame can have a claustrophobic effect Costume & Make-Up Costume simply refers to the clothes that characters wear. Using certain colors or designs, costumes in narrative cinema is used to signify characters or to make clear distinctions between characters. Costume often gives important information about characters, including their background, profession, attitudes, personalities, their state of mind or their role in the narrative. For example black or dark clothing often suggest evil (antagonist) while white or light clothing suggests goodness (protagonist). Change in costume can represent an evolution of a character.       17   EDITING Editing creates the illusion that a film is unfolding naturally, without the intervention of the film-maker. Good editing is invisible with seamless connecting shots that create the illusion of continuity of time and space. There are numerous editing techniques: Cut – where one shot is cut to the next. Sudden cuts can produce surprise, horror, and disruption. Fade - where the image disappears into black and generally represents a brief lapse of time Dissolve - where a fade coincides with the gradual superimposition of a new image and generally represents a longer lapse of time Wipe - where one image replaces another proceeded by a divisional line moving across the screen The fade, dissolve and wipe can be used to indicate the passing or expansion of time. The longer the edit techniques are can indicate more or less time passed. Shot-reverse shot – is used to represent a conversation. The characters speak to each other appearing on opposite sides of successive frames, each looking in the direction of the other. This is shot over a continuous sound track and edited together. Graphic match – shots are edited together in relation to how they visually correspond with each other. Visual relationships are significant but visual/aural relationships in editing are also very important this includes the overlapping sound from one shot to the next with an image depicting the dialogue spoken. Crosscutting – is cutting back and forth between scenes linking stories or events together or indicating events happening simultaneously. Timing - can be used to enhance the energy of the action, or to slow it down. Action sequences can take on greater drama if cuts occur within moments of high action. For example if a car is about to crash, the viewer may see several successive and separate views of the same moment. A cut in a moment of relative steadiness can slow down action. A character deep in thought may be shot from several positions in order to expand the moment and instill significance into it. Rhythm of editing is important. Many films have a rhythm throughout their duration. The pacing and rhythm of the editing can dramatically affect single scenes. Editing can increase or decrease the pace of the film. Quick edits is editing brief shots together before cutting to the next shot while slow edits allow shots to continue for a long time before the cut to the next shot. The filmmaker may choose to construct a steady rhythm by making all the shots approximately the same length. An accelerating rhythm may arise from successively shorter shots; a spasmodic, irregular rhythm may be produced by a combination of shots of widely different lengths.     20   DIALOGUE Through dialogue important information can be revealed about the storylines and/or characters. Often a significant line of dialogue in the text can convey important information about the narrative. It can provide a prediction of what may occur, help identify themes and assist in establishing or explaining a characters motivations or actions. Narration Conventionally the narrator of a film is usually the protagonist also audiences have the tendency to believe that if a character narrates a film then the narrative is from that character’s point of view. SOUND EFFECTS Sounds are added to improve the realism or impact of a scene or event. FOLEY Any kind of natural sound caused by movement or nature, which can be recorded in a studio. Any other sounds of this nature EG; the sound of engine of a car, which can not be recorded in a studio are called sound effects. These are also added to the soundtrack. SCORE The musical component of a movie's soundtrack, usually composed specifically for the film by a film composer; the background music in a film, usually specially composed for the film; may be orchestral, synthesized, or performed by a small group of musicians; also refers to the act of writing music for a film Also particular soundtrack has the ability to convey the emotional significance of a scene by helping the audience to identify with the character’s emotions. Music can ‘feel’ for the audience by indicating when a powerful moment is occurring. Music can be used ironically by deliberately accompanying an image inappropriately. For example a happy, upbeat song contrasted with a violent event to make the violence seem more perverse.   21   SPECIAL EFFECTS Special effects (often abbreviated as SFX, SPFX, or simply FX) are illusions or visual tricks used in the film, television, theatre, video game and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world. Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of optical effects and mechanical effects. With the emergence of digital film-making a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with the latter referring to digital post-production while "special effects" referring to mechanical and optical effects. Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects) are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting. This includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scalemodels, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building, etc. Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, a set may be built with break-away doors or walls to enhance a fight scene, or prosthetic makeup can be used to make an actor look like a non-human creature. Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are techniques in which images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure, mattes or the Schüfftan process or in post- production using an optical printer. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background. Since the 1990s, computer-generated imagery (CGI) has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI.     22   TYPOGRAPHY An important design convention of print is typographical style. Typefaces communicate a variety of meaning for the audience. Typography organises text and creates meaning. It does this through hierarchy, the use of fonts to emphasise some content over others. Hierarchy helps readers scan a document and understand the relationship between different sections. The best typography is aesthetically pleasing, invites readers into a publication and encourages them to continue reading while not drawing attention to it-self. (Nelson Media, Jo Flack) It is important when exploring your concepts and ideas for your media products that you investigate the typography selected by the creator and understand what meaning you are receiving by the choice of typeface. Print production terms: Serif: a slight projection or decorative flourish finishing of a letter in certain typefaces. Sans Serif: Typefaces without serifs. Copy: The written material that will appear on your print product. Typesetting: The process of arranging and laying out copy.   25   VISUAL COMPOSITION Visual composition specifically refers to the placement and relationship of all the elements within the shot. For instance, two characters within the same shot can be shown as being distant in their relationship with each other if there is a large space or object between them. Alternatively two characters who are in close proximity can be shown to the audience as being in a relationship. Likewise a character can be represented as being powerful or authoritarian if they are sitting at an office desk. Hierarchy between characters and objects is used to suggest various things. Some artists rely heavily on visual composition to please the audience and ensure they receive the hidden messages they intended. The term composition means 'putting together' and can apply to any work of art from music to writing to photography that is arranged using conscious thought. In the visual arts, composition is often used interchangeably with various terms such as design, form, visual ordering, or formal structure, depending on the context. In graphic design for press and desktop publishing, composition is commonly referred to as page layout.   26   TEXT & GRAPHICS Text and Graphics are essential for representation and narrative understanding. Typefaces are selected to ensure their typography is clean, consistent and easy to read. We all know that an image is worth a thousand words. Graphics make impact instantly. It is the creators job to ensure that the appropriate images reinforce the appropriate message to the audience. The masthead, or title of your publication, is probably the most distinctive and important element of your print publications cover. Magazines and Print publications will often experiment with font type, size and weight and space between the letters until they end up with something that is pleasing on the eye. Things to discuss when referring to text and graphics: • Styles • Fonts • Body Text • Masthead • Space • Visual composition • Colour • Hierarchy   27   MEDIA   CONVENTIONS       Narrative conventions are usually implied – that is, they exist in the minds of the audience rather than being explicitly seen in the narrative. They are how audience both constructs and makes sense of the narrative.   30   FORM AND STRUCTURE The structure of the Hollwood three-act narrative structure (Opening, Development & Resolution) is not always fixed. Regardless of how the narrative is teased out, there are some essential elements that ensure the audience can recognize and follow the action. • STEP 1: Establish normal • STEP 2: Disrupt normal • STEP 3: Create turning points • STEP 4: Develop the characters • STEP 5: Restore normal Audiences decode tests both logically and emotionally; both interact with each other. One person may laugh, while the other may cry to a particular scene. So regardless of the form and structure of the narrative, the audience can decode the messages vastly different and is sometimes out of the creator’s hands. The most common narrative form is the linear narrative in which the narrative runs chronologically. All the events occur in the order in which they happen. For example: Orientation – Complication & Conflict – Resolution. Another popular structure if the circular narrative, where the action begins and ends at the same point or where plot points are repeated. The structure of flashback or flash-forward is another structured technique employed by creators to reveal the narrative to the audience. This is often where the audience are presented with the resolution at the beginning of the text and then have to join the dots as to what unfolds through a sequence of flashbacks or flash-forwards.   31   CHARACTER In narrative, a central character, known as the protagonist, will often drive the action forward. This will create engagement for the audience and help them understand the attitudes and behaviors of the leading characters. The creator will often place the antagonist in the way of the protagonist and prevent them from achieving their goals. However, how these characters appear and how they are constructed and reveal themselves is essential to keeping the audience engaged in the plot. There are four aspects to the study of character: • Establishment • Development • Motivation • Relationships Creators are well aware that audiences can make their mind up about characters in an instant. Directors select from a rich palette of techniques to establish each character. The opening of any narrative is critical in audiences forming opinions about each character. Code and conventions such as setting, costume and props provide clues to the establishment of character. Dialogue, music and sound effects may also build understanding. Occasionally we hear a character before we see them. This narration or voice-over can help the audience frame an opinion about the character via tone of voice and what the dialogue says. Nelson Media, Flack Directors position audiences to relate to characters. The creators will expect the audience to have a pre-existing idea or feeling about each of their characters. This could be a reason as to why the actor/actress is cast for the role. • How do they behave? • What do they say? • How do they appear? • Why have they been included? • How do they help propel the story? • How does their relationship with other characters affect the narrative? • What type of character are they how do they compare to or compliment the others? Character development involves the interrelationship between location, story and characters. Character development and resolution are usually based around motivation and or portrayal of relationships between characters. This will often follow how audiences will like, dislike and then like a character as the narrative progresses.   32   Character & Ideology: Character motivation is a good indicator of ideology. In mainstream texts, the protagonist is often motivated by the need to restore order and set the social values right, according to the society and its beliefs at the time the text was produced and distributed. Their motivation will often reflect the dominant ideology of the time and society. Antagonist will often reflect the opposite belief and as a result the audience will seek revenge against the character and want them to be punished for their actions or have the character feel a sense of reflection for their attitudes and behaviors. Unless in the resolution the character has a change of heart and their evil turns to good. Audiences can often predict character motivation, development and resolution. Creators will do this in family orientated texts. Audiences of this genre want happy endings and feel at peace with the conclusion of the narrative. Relationships between characters are constructed to develop the narrative, building its sense of realism through dialogue and actions that represent how audiences expect characters to react to the narrative triggers introduced into the text. Nelson Media, Flack   35   POINT OF VIEW The term ‘point of view’ has two meanings; one applies to all narrative, the other is specific to film, TV and photographic narratives: • The first relates to story and refers to the point of view from which the narrative is presented. • The second is the production code and refers to a shot that is taken from a character’s point of view. The shot is abbreviated to POV. In most narratives, one character’s point of view is privileged over others. More if often revealed to the audience through code and conventions such as narration, flashbacks, POV shots and acting. This character will usually have more on-screen time than the others. Filmmakers can sometimes, manipulate point of view to add depth to the narrative. Creators of media product can use point of view to express their opinions and values, constructing the narrative to reflect the ideology. Narratives may demonstrate political or social commentary on the dominant ideology of the time and place in which the media product was made and distributed.   36   THE STRUCTURING OF TIME The order, duration and frequency of events are important in the narrative. It can be examined for its expansion and contraction of time. Narratives are often in linear (chronological) order as it makes the story easier to follow for the audience. This however is not always the case. Some narratives are nonlinear (non-chronological). They may begin at the end, as a flashback or jump around in time. These may also present later events first; only towards the end of the film does the audience discover that certain events came earlier and caused the ones they have already seen. The structuring of narrative time is made up of a combination of three events: • Temporal order: The order in which the story is screened, which may include chronological order, flashbacks and or flash forwards. • Temporal duration: The manipulation of time from real time, the foreshortening or expansion of time through editing the duration of events on screen. • Temporal frequency: The number of times an event or part of an event is shown to an audience. There are quite a number of techniques used for representing the passing or manipulation of time. Compression – the audience sees on the screen the seasons rapidly changing; the calendar may be flicked over to show the passing of days, there may be a fade, dissolve or wipe between scenes. All these things can indicate that time has passed. The film may eliminate days or years of narrative action yet the audience accepts condensation of the time into the length of the film. Ellipsis – a long series of events is cut down to a few significant shots. For example a character may have to train for an event over a month rather than show every training session a few examples are show to represent the month’s training. Freeze frame – a still image appears on screen and a voice-over tells us significant time has passed Slow motion - time can be stretched (lengthened) giving emphasis to a scene or event. Fast motion – the pace can be increased to pick up the speed of a scene or event Flashbacks and flash-forwards – the film-maker can make the audience travel in time, either to the past or future. This doesn’t confuse the audience because they mentally rearrange the events into order to which they would have logically occurred. Flashbacks are often shown in black and white footage. Repeats – some shots are repeatedly shown to create coherence. The audience can experience several times exciting bits again shown from different camera viewpoints. Parallel actions – the audience is able to experience what is going on in different places at different times.   37   ELEMENTS OF PAGE LAYOUT Page layout is a design element of print that is highly considered before any media print production is created and distributed. It is part of the pre- production phase. You wouldn’t consider any page layout decisions without understanding what your audience expects to see on the page. Thinking about the conventions that will make the layout easy to interpret and to ensure your message is decoded the way you intended. Page Layout Considerations: • Space • Hierarchy • Images & Size • Colour • The use of White space / Negative space • How much text and where the text resides • Headlines and size of font • Audience expectations • Where the eye tracks across the page HIERARCHY When consideration is given to page layout the crucial elements that media producers consider is hierarchy. The size of the elements on a printed page often indicates their importance to readers. The heading and photographs associated with the newspaper article are often the largest and most dominant feature of the design, followed by subheadings, body text and captions. Increasing the size or limiting the size of the image or text will reveal the greater prominence to the audience. This all seems obvious to the reader / audience but there are people in the Media industry who’s job it is to consider this important page layout convention.   40   HYPERLINKING & MOUNTING HYPERLINK = Embedded links within online text or images that allow the user to branch away from the main narrative. MOUNTING = Placing the media product on its final destination. Creating a platform for the media product to be viewed by the audience. Both these conventions are considered in the post-production phase of production. They are a critical design and marketing element to any media product. Different audiences will have expectations on what they want to see and access when it comes to mounting and hyper-linking.   41   FRAMING OF IMAGES Framing is the process of which the final print production will be framed. There are many effective techniques to framing a still image. This section is where you need to visualise and plan how you will present your images and where they would be exhibited. Some things to consider: • Location of exhibition (eg. inner city gallery, café etc.) • Size of paper (A4, A5, A3, A1*) • Border colour or borderless • Mounting (mount card, foam core etc) • Order of images • Presentation style (all in a row, a grid, 3 by 3 square etc.)