Effective Communication in Orgs: Principles, Classification, & Conducting Meetings, Lecture notes of Communications Engineering

Download Effective Communication in Orgs: Principles, Classification, & Conducting Meetings and more Lecture notes Communications Engineering in PDF only on Docsity! 1 | P a g e SIAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Department of Business Studies COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES Henry Ligawa SUBJECT COORDINATOR 2021 2 | P a g e TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION The word communication is used to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring that your message reaches the target audience and that the receiver understands and responds to the message appropriately. Communication is an important aspect of behaviour; human communication is affected by all factors that influence human behaviour. GENERAL DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION Communication comes from the Latin word communicare, which means “to make common” or “to share.” Communication is defined as the process of using messages to generate meaning (Judy Pearson, 2008). Communication is considered a process because it is an activity, an exchange, or a set of behaviours—not an unchanging product. It is an activity in which you participate. David Berlo (1960), a pioneer in the field of communication, probably provided the clearest statement about communication as a process: “If we accept the concept of process, we view events and relationships as dynamic, on-going, ever changing, continuous. When we label something as a process, we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a process interact; each affects all the others. Working definition Communication is the process of transmitting information and meaning from one individual or organisation to another by means of mutually understandable symbols. The crucial element is meaning. Communication has as its central objective the transmission of meaning. The process of communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the sender intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also on the meaning of that information. In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words, signs, pictures, sounds) which stand for the idea. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons with whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the symbols used; otherwise, there is miscommunication. ROLE/ PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION 1. Managing the human resource. Communication is the tool with which we exercise influence on others, bring about changes in the attitudes and views of our associates, motivate them and establish and maintain relations with them. The primary element in the skills of management is competence in communication. 2. Communication is central to the success of everything that we do in an organisations (objectives); our family, school/college, office, hobby group, community group, our city/town are the organisations in which we live and act. Our activities succeed or fail, and our goals are achieved or not achieved, according to our ability to communicate effectively with other members. 3. Building positive interpersonal relation. Communication plays a foundational role in the development of any healthy interpersonal relationship. It can strengthen a mutual sense of commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap between people who have misunderstandings. Indeed, communication plays a critical role in all phases of interpersonal relations, from creating a relationship to maintenance of relationships. 5 | P a g e Courtesy is consideration for other people's feelings. It is seen in an individual's behaviour with others. A well-mannered and courteous person shows consideration and thought for others. In a letter, the style, the manner and the choice of words reflect the courtesy of the writer. Some simple rules for courtesy are: (i) Use the courtesy words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the situation requires. (ii) Express appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and congratulation when someone achieves something. (iii) Make the other person feel comfortable. This is an important factor of courtesy. Care and consideration for the reader is reflected in the letter. The opening sentence itself shows the courtesy of the writer: • We appreciate your promptness in sending the goods. • Thank you for sending your quotation so promptly. • We are sorry to learn that you were inconvenienced. Requests must also be made courteously: • We would appreciate it very much if you could send your cheque within three days of receiving our bill. • Will you please look into the matter at once? (iv) Be attentive and prompt in responding. Every message, written or oral should be answered within twenty-four hours. If it is a letter of complaint, the response should be immediate; a courteous company makes a phone call or sends a fax message immediately on receiving a complaint or hearing about a problem. Everyone appreciates prompt attention. (v) Let the tone, the choice of words and the style of the message reflect your consideration for the feelings and needs of the receiver. This is particularly important if the message to be 'conveyed is likely to be unpleasant for the reader. A courteous letter has the best chance of getting a favourable response. Seeing the situation as the reader sees it, and taking care of his/ her needs, is courtesy. You must have an awareness of how the words sound to the receiver. 8. Completeness The message communicated should be complete with all necessary details and information given to enable proper understanding and response by the receiver. ROLE OF ICT IN COMMUNICATION As depicted here, ICT involves the use of computer and internet in communication, including the internet enabled mobile phone. Effects of Communication Technology on Business Productivity 1) Business productivity has increased dramatically with mobile communication tools. The mobile telephone and the mobile PC have freed the business person from the desk and made it possible to work from anywhere, anytime. With instant messaging, the capabilities of communication have become even more powerful. Regular Instant Messaging users have increased the number of people they contact and the frequency of such contacts, while decreasing the number of e- mail and phone calls they initiated. 2) It builds customer and partner relationships. Clients and business partners get instant access to the company contacts they need, right when they need them. They do not have to waste time waiting for the operator or the EPBX system to put them through to the person they need to talk to. 3) It increases employee productivity since on-the-spot responses means that work gets done faster and more efficiently, right from your desktop. 4) It increases flexibility and decreases downtime. There is no need to spend time just waiting for information to be located and transmitted by some other person. Direct access to the needed information means ability to take decisions on the spot. Within the organisation, rigid and time 6 | P a g e consuming procedures of getting information through the organisational channels can be avoided. Using wireless connectivity gives users more flexibility to work from a variety of locations, resulting in productivity gains and efficiency savings. With instant messaging it is possible to reply to urgent queries, eliminate the need to make copies, eliminate travel in many cases. Productivity gains are measured by the amount of additional time available that is used to perform business tasks. 5) An important development is the portability of the cellular telephone and of the laptop computer, so that an individual has the power to contact anyone at any location from any location. The instrument is no longer tied to the transmitting equipment because of developments in wireless technology combined with telephone for the cellular (mobile) telephone. 6) The laptop and other portable computers and the mobile telephone have freed the person from the office and the desk. 7) The mobile telephone has acquired a large number of capabilities besides transmission of voice; it has become capable of storage. 8) Data which might be needed at important meetings at a faraway location can be carried in compressed form in a mobile telephone, a laptop computer, palmtop computer or pocket computer. This data can be in the form of text, graphics or voice and sounds. 9) The instrument is also capable of taking instant pictures and storing or transmitting them; these can then be transferred to other instruments like the desktop computer. 10) It allows access to the internet, thus making information search possible from any location. The instrument allows the user to carry out some editing of the stored data. 11) Ability to hold one-on-one conferences online and hold "virtual meetings" where others can join in. 12) Offers opportunity for online marketing and online business transactions. Employees and customers can discuss sales deals on-the-spot. 13) Information communication is fast, enabling immediate answers to urgent questions and staying in close touch with employees who are on the road. The management can also send personal, timely congratulatory notes to boost staff morale. 14) It has capacity for mass storage of information. All data about the organisation can be located in one place. 15) It enables quick and ready access to information from many sources at any time. 16) Provides reprographic services in communication. 17) Enables social networking through the social media. Challenges posed by the use of ICT in communication 1. Increase in cyber-crime. 2. Internet fluctuations. 3. High cost of purchasing and installing communication gadgets. 4. Proper usage of ICT needs technical knowledge and skills. 5. Mobile phone and social media have led to spread of fake news, hatred and defation. 7 | P a g e TOPIC 2. COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication as a process is moving, continually changing, with no beginning or end. In our definition, communication is a process—something that is continually changing. Individual words, sentences, and gestures have no meaning in isolation. They make sense only when viewed as parts of an on-going, dynamic process. To fully understand the process of communication, we must notice how what we say and do influences and affects what the other person says and does. We must pay attention to the changes we experience and how these changes influence and affect our perception, interpretation, and interactions with others, from moment to moment, year to year, and decade to decade. Similarly, we also need to be sensitive to the on-going changes in those we communicate with because they are changing too. Communication is alive, and to fully appreciate it requires that we view it as a dynamic, fluid, and continually changing process. COMPONENTS OF THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION There are seven elements or factors which make up the process of communication: 1. Source /Sender, is the one who initiates the action of communicating 2. Audience /Receiver is the person(s) for whom the communication is intended 3. Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the communication 4. Message/ Content is the information conveyed 5. Medium /Channel is the means or method used for conveying the message 6. Feedback is the receiver's response to the communication as observed by the sender 7. Environment /Context is the background in which the communication takes place. 1. Source The source is the originator of the message. It is the person or persons who want to communicate a message to another person or a group of people. The source of a message can be an individual speaker addressing a group, a child asking for candy, a couple sending out invitations to a family reunion, or a person writing a letter. Encoding Once the source has decided on a message to communicate, he must encode or convert that idea, thought, or feeling into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will be most effectively understood by the receiver. This encoding process can be extremely creative because there are unlimited ways for the source to convert the idea or feeling into words and behaviours. 2. Message The message is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source wants to communicate. This message is encoded or converted into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will most likely be understood by the receiver. 3. Receiver The receiver is the recipient of the message. The receiver can be an individual or a group of people. Once the receiver hears the words and receives the nonverbal cues from the sender, she must interpret or decode them if communication is to occur. Decoding Decoding is the process of making sense out of the message received. The receiver must decipher the language and behaviours sent by the source so they will have meaning. After the receiver decodes the message, the receiver (now the source) can encode a return message and send it back to the other person. 4. Channel A channel is the medium by which the message is communicated. The source can utilize the channels of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. For instance, if you want to communicate affection for another person, you can utilize a variety of channels or combination of channels. You can say, “I like you” 10 | P a g e educated persons at higher levels do not always give proper attention to all written communication. Oral communication has to be used to supplement written communication when the message is important. 4. Cultural Barriers When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behaviour patterns of the group. These are the behaviours that the group accepts as signs of belonging. The group rewards such behaviour through acts of recognition, approval, and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you and where you are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interests and a high level of win-win contact. Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of game-playing replaces good communication. 5. Gender Barriers There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman which may create misunderstanding between genders. Global studies suggest that a woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age of three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys. The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in two specific locations. Scientifically speaking, a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, which are the features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely, mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men each day. 6. Socio-Psychological Barriers People have personal feelings, desires, fears and hopes, likes and dislikes, attitudes, views and opinions. They form a sort of emotional filter around the mind, and influence the way we respond to messages that we receive and to new experiences. Factors like the time, the place and the circumstances of a particular communication also influence our understanding and response. Problems of understanding, interpretation and response to communication arise partly from our socially-learnt attributes and partly from our personal attributes. These are called socio-psychological barriers. (a) Self-centred Attitudes: We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own interests and needs and desires. We pay attention to messages which are useful to us, and often do not pay enough attention to those messages which do not interest us. (b) Group Identification: Our values and opinions are influenced, in some matters, by the group to which we belong, like family, the larger family of relatives, people of our locality or city, our religion or language group, gender, age group, nationality, economic group and so on. We tend to reject an idea which goes against the interests of the group. (c) Self-Image: our idea about what we are, what we look like and what impression we make. It is quite difficult to accept any idea which goes against it. (d) Selective Perception: we see, read or hear selectively according to our own needs, interests and experience may not perceive some of the aspects and information content of the message. (e) Filtering: Filtering is the process of reducing the details or aspects of a message. Each person who passes on a message reduces or colours a message according to his/her understanding of the situation. (f) Status Block: A "boss" who is conscious of status finds it difficult to receive any suggestions from subordinates as they feel that they know everything about how to run the business. They do not agree that a junior may have some good ideas and many good ideas are wasted only because they come· from junior employees who are considered to be too young and inexperienced. Social distance sometimes makes workers too shy or frightened to speak to their senior bosses. 11 | P a g e (g) Resistance to Change: Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their established opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they feel insecure or afraid of changes in methods or situations. (h) Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can cause a person's mind to be narrow and limits the ability to take in new ideas. Young employees with bright ideas and fresh approach feel frustrated by the closed mind of the senior people in an organisation. (i) Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a person from framing the message properly. Oral communication can be handicapped by a number of problems; nervousness in facing an audience may affect a person's clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an achievement or a new idea may make a person's speech incoherent. Lack of skill in reading and in listening is also common. (j) State of Health: Pain or fever certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but even if the general state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced. The mind is not sufficiently alert; there will be gaps in attention while reading or listening; there is lack of energy to think clearly and to find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health is poor. Emotions, which play an important part in successful communication, are easily disturbed. (k) Experiential barriers The difficulty in understanding matters not personally experienced. Our past experience may also negatively influence our perception and understanding related to those experiences. (l) Perceptual barriers The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. The selectivity/exposure filters that are developed on the basis of experience or lack of it play their part. A bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviours i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful. (m) Emotional barriers It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others. "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a result, many people hold back from communicating their thoughts and feelings to others because they feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our development into effective communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships. Emotions influence both our speech and our listening. In many cases emotions may stop us from saying many things and in other instance may make us say things that we never wanted to say. (n) Hidden agendas Hidden Agendas serve two functions: (i) Individual’s strategy for poor self-esteem. This is mostly in cases where the personality is a submissive one. In such cases the communication can turn sly and manipulative as one does not have the courage to communicate openly. This is particularly the case as one is always apprehensive of others differing point of view and is fearful of annoying the other person, not being confident of handling a communication situation if there was one requiring assertive handling. (ii) Promote ulterior motives and needs. If a person is known to promote one’s ulterior motives and needs either by being aggressive or by being covertly submissive; sooner or later it would become a major communication barrier. It generally creates a win-lose situation and does not work in establishing trust, which is a basic premise for effective and purposeful communication. (o) Stereotypes Stereotypes are mental images and expectations. Stereotypes provide a shortcut to form an opinion of someone. We tend to get opinionated sooner or later and it becomes difficult to 12 | P a g e change opinions. Opinions give us a base to relate to others. Humans are very diverse by nature whereas stereotyping them in categories with specific characteristics is very common and therefore it also becomes one of the most common barriers to communication. (p) Defensiveness: If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such ways that reduce understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling complaints and grievances and in resolving conflicts. OVERCOMING BARRIERS (i) Persons in positions of authority, as well as subordinates, can be helped to overcome these barriers by training in effective communication. Periodical review and reorganisation of communication networks is also needed to ensure that information reaches people in time. (ii) Health centres: Many organisations provide medical aid, gymnasiums and recreation for the staff in an effort to keep down stress levels. Regulations like compulsory vacation after a certain number of months/years are also meant to ensure that employees avoid stress and fatigue. (iii) You have to cultivate all the communication skills including getting feedback and non-verbal communication. (iv)The Management should ensure the channels must be kept in good working condition; the intercoms, notice-boards, information on meetings must be kept up-to-date. Many companies which can afford it, maintain soundproof rooms for meetings and take steps to reduce the noise level in the office. (v) Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use of language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever possible. Whenever possible, feedback must be got and given to ensure that there is common understanding of a message. (vi)Personal barriers can be overcome only "by making a conscious effort, and by training for better communication. (vii) To reduce cultural barriers, it is better not to assume similarity with those from other cultures until you are sure. It is safer to assume difference till you are sure of similarity. Depend on description rather than evaluation or interpretation; persons from different cultures evaluate and interpret differently. 15 | P a g e TOPIC 4: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL The communication process can take any of the four forms—verbal and nonverbal. Both forms usually operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive. Spoken or oral and written are both forms of verbal communication while nonverbal consists of visual and audio-visual. VERBAL COMMUNICATION 1. Oral 2. Written 3. Visual 4. Audio visual Types of verbal communication 1. Face to face communication: involves the speaker and the listener interacting face to face such as in dyadic, small group or public speaking. 2. Telephone conversation: involve two people interacting by use of telephone though it is possible for a small group by means of teleconferencing. 3. The radio: makes it possible to speak to a large number of people at the same time. 4. Written communication: involves use of written forms of communication such as letters, memos, reports, circulars, etc. Spoken and Written Communication Oral communication is more natural and immediate; we speak to communicate in natural and informal situations. We also speak in formal and official situations such as making a presentation or taking an interview when the target audience is present. Written communication has to be used when the other person is not present and is not available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best conveyed in writing. Attributes/Features of Spoken and Written Communication Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into account in choosing which one to use in a particular situation. (i) Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance and in reception; it takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter than it takes to speak, and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message. Feedback is also slower in written communication. (ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral communication may be taped for later ' reference, but the Authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover, tapes can be edited and the message distorted. Written records and documents are more reliable and acceptable. (iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate than oral. Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary in written communication because the receiver is not present to ask for clarification. In oral communication, it is not always possible to be so precise in the choice of words. There is also no time to seek and consider words while speaking; however, the receiver can seek clarification on the spot. Besides, oral communication has the support of vocal ' tone and gestures and expressions which enrich the meaning of the words. (iv) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. The situation of oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks, while for written messages there are standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message short. (v) Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and transmission, all of which cost money. Oral communication can also cost a great deal since it requires simultaneous presence and attention of the two parties, and getting together costs money. Costs will depend on the availability of the required person(s) at the particular place. 16 | P a g e (vi) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body language and paralanguage. The speaker can control the style of delivery, giving meaning to words and sentences by voice inflexion and facial expressions and gestures. Written communication is separated from the writer's bodily presence and is more in the control of the reader. The reader can give to the words the sound, inflexion and stress as he chooses; and this may be affected by the reader's mood and state of mind at the time of reading. (vii) Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face gives some feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can be sought and given at once. A conversation can be brought to a satisfactory conclusion by continuous exchange of ideas and views. In written communication the feedback is delayed; the reader's facial expressions cannot be seen by the writer; the reader's response is known to the writer only when the reader replies. The reader may give a cautious and guarded reply without letting the other see the really felt reaction. (viii) Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. When a language is spoken, there are abbreviations and dropping of some sounds, as in can't, won't, don't, I'll, we'll. The vocabulary used in written English is also more formal than in spoken English. Spoken English requires learning correct pronunciation English spelling does not always indicate how the word is pronounced. We have to learn correct pronunciation so that we can communicate with people in other parts of the world. Importance of verbal communication (i) Speed: Oral communication is fast with immediate feedback. (ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Written records and documents are more reliable and acceptable. (iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is precise and accurate. Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary in written communication because the receiver is not present to ask for clarification. (iv)Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. There are standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message short (v) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body language and paralanguage which enrich meaning. (vi)Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face gives some feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can be sought and given at once. A conversation can be brought to a satisfactory conclusion by continuous exchange of ideas and views. (vii) Formality: verbal communication allow for choice between being formal or informal. Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. The vocabulary used in written English is also more formal than in spoken English. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written. Nonverbal communication has a great impact and influence on the receiver’s decoding or interpretation of any message. Types of nonverbal communication 1. Body Movement (body language) The study of body movement is known as kinesics and it deals with all the ways people use their bodies to communicate or enhance their verbal communication. Body movement includes posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. 17 | P a g e Posture—the way you position and move your body—can communicate a great deal about you. For example, leaning toward or leaning away from someone in conversation can convey your degree of interest, attentiveness, or involvement. Turning your back or standing to leave can convey a lack of interest or signal the end to the conversation. Gestures are any movement of the hands, fingers, or arms. Open arms can signify honesty and openness. Facial expressions are the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate messages. They include the mouth, cheeks, eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, forehead, nose, and chin. The face is probably the most observed part of the body when we communicate with others, and this is not without reason. Our face usually communicates our internal, emotional experience. Eye contact can also communicate several different types of messages. Direct eye contact in our culture can communicate involvement, intimidation, and intimacy. A diverted or downcast gaze communicates a different message. Our eyes can also communicate dominance and submission. We can “stare someone down” with a prolonged gaze that is not returned by the other person, or we can avoid or break eye contact when talking with a superior, such as a boss or supervisor. 2. Paralanguage Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality. Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily determined by the physical length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if we are frightened, anxious, or excited, and it can lower if we are attempting to sound more powerful or authoritative. Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a characteristic volume; some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a whisper. We can also adjust our volume to meet the requirements of the communication setting we are in. In a noisy, crowded room we raise our volume and speak above the other voices, whereas during a movie or quiet dinner we lower our voice. Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of speech. Some speak fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when we’re excited, frightened, or nervous, and we tend to decrease our rate of speech when we’re uncertain, thoughtful, and sad. Quality refers to the overall sound of our voice. Each human voice has a distinctive tone. The quality of one’s voice may be characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or calm. We each have a distinctive quality to the way we sound. Can you recall your mother’s voice? Your father’s voice? Your best friend’s voice? Often, when answering the telephone, we immediately recognize the caller by his or her voice quality. 3. Personal Presentation Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we want to communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity, attractiveness, and status. We can create a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear. Our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the world. The length and style of our hair, bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger and toenail painting (even for men these days), and many other grooming habits communicate a great deal about who we are and how we want to be perceived. Touching is the most intimate form of nonverbal communication behaviour. Touching behaviour, or haptics, as it is called by social scientists, includes all behaviour that involves the skin. Primarily, touching behaviour deals with our hands and how we use them to communicate. 4. Proxemics Proxemics, the study of our use of space, and was first introduced by anthropologist Edward Hall in his book The Hidden Dimension. By observing conversations between people, Hall discovered that our personal space could be broken down into four zones or distances: ✦ Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making love, holding intimate or confidential conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling. This is often referred to as our “personal bubble.” Only our most intimate relationships are permitted into this area. If an uninvited person invades our personal bubble, whether it’s a stranger sitting next to us on an empty bench or 20 | P a g e (iii) Network and airwave failure may hinder communication process over telephone, internet, radio and television. (iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating knowledge such the use of computer. (v) Breakdown of communication gadgets; computers, cameras, slide projectors, video and radio gadget may break down when they are needed for use. (vi) Lack of electric power may hinder use of electronic communication gadgets such as computers, projectors, slide projectors and television. (vii) Language barrier: most mass media broadcast in official languages which many people may not understand. Ways of overcoming the barriers to visual and audio visual communication (i) In a business organisation, the management should always ensure the audio, visual and audio visual channels are always working properly. (ii) The management should always ensure that networks and airwave receptions are adequate for proper communication. (iii) Always ensure that there is electricity or battery power and a proper back-up before beginning to use audio, visual and audio visual communication gadgets. (iv) Your choice of medium should be dictated by the literacy level, physical location and technological capacity of the receiver. (v) The choice of language should always depend on the linguistic knowledge and competence of your receiver. (vi) Mass media should broadcast in a variety of languages; the availability of channels broadcasting in local languages ensures this. 21 | P a g e TOPIC 5: CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target audience. All channels can be classified as written, face to face to face, electronic and non-verbal. Choice of Communication Medium You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular message. The main aspects are: a) The type of audience you want to reach. b) The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the distance between the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some media are faster and can travel distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the e- mail; these media also have the advantage of being person to person. c) Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will certainly be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do not ensure the same secrecy of the message. Messages like warning memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand for overdue payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot be sent by media like telegram or telex or fax even if they are urgent. d) Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting. e) Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand delivery is more reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary mail. f) Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency. g) Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an affecting factor. You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver can access. You may have a fax machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no arrangements for receiving a fax message, you cannot use that medium. h) Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you have to use a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone. i) Availability of hard copy for record. j) Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of congratulation is more formal and has a different effect from conveying the same message orally. k) Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages in an organisation have an emotional content, which influences the choice considerably; the emotional content is not carried equally by all media. 22 | P a g e TOPIC 6: OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY Etiquette means conventionally accepted rules for formal relations and personal behaviour in a polite society. It includes the code of ethical behaviour in relation to professional practice or action among members of a profession in dealing with each other.) Other words associated with etiquette are decorum, which suggests dignity and a sense of what is appropriate for a person of good breeding, and propriety, which implies established conventions of morals and good taste. Since communication is, essentially, relationship, and includes the activity of establishing and maintaining contact with others, knowledge and practice of rules of etiquette add to a person's effectiveness. Basic etiquette is an important part of presenting a positive image to one's boss, colleagues, clients, customers and acquaintances. A cultivated person is marked by behaviour that shows respect and courtesy to everyone, regardless of position. Importance of office etiquette 1. Good interpersonal relations with fellow staff 2. Good image of the company 3. Good image of individual employee 4. Customer satisfaction Areas of official etiquette 1. Personal Behaviour It is generally felt that if you cannot be trusted not to embarrass yourself in business and social situations, you may lack the self-control that is necessary to be good at what you do. Greeting: It is customary to greet others on entering, and acknowledge others' greetings either with a smile and a nod or with formal greeting like "good morning" according to the occasion. Good posture is pleasant, and can be developed by keeping both feet firmly on the floor, holding the back straight without slouching, and not crossing the arms either while standing or sitting. Self-composure and a dignified posture make a good impression and project an image of competence. Not being overweight or being in good shape contributes to a presentable appearance. Sneezing or coughing: may be unavoidable, but can be dealt with discreetly. If you sense a sneeze or cough or yawn coming on, cover your nose and mouth with a handkerchief in your left hand, so as to leave your right hand clean for shaking hands, opening doors, etc. Burping must be firmly controlled; hiccups can be avoided by being in good health and taking care of what one eats. Grooming such as combing the hair or applying lipstick, should always be done in the privacy of rest-rooms. Fragrances or perfumes of any kind should be applied sparingly, evoking a subtle scent. Strong and/or cheap fragrance is often offensive and not appropriate in a professional setting. 2. Greetings The style of greeting varies from country to country. If in mixed religious company, it may be useful to keep to Western style greetings. When receiving visitors from another country or visiting another country, it is better to find out their style of greeting, both the verbal and the non-verbal gesture that accompanies it. Between persons who know each other very well, it is customary to greet with "Hello! How are you?" The response is "Hello! Quite well, thanks. And you?" 3. Making an Apology A simple apology is to say, "Sorry" or "I'm sorry." A somewhat more formal style is to say, "Pardon me" or "I beg your pardon." This formal apology is also used if you do not catch or understand what someone says to you, and you wish them to repeat what they said. A formal written apology uses the words "I/We regret ... " Requirements and styles of apology vary 25 | P a g e ''Yes, I think that is all right," would be sufficient. Agreement must be graceful and cheerful, even if the agreement is conditional. State the condition clearly and say, "I'll agree to that on one condition ... ," or "I'll accept that on the condition that .... " If you disagree with someone's statement, in a discussion, you may feel tempted to express yourself aggressively. An aggressive response such as, "I don't agree with you," can hurt or irritate those who hear it. Also, an artificially polite statement like, "I beg to differ," is not friendly (it is a put-down). If you are assertive, you can express disagreement without being offensive. When you disagree, instead of not keeping silent or responding aggressively, try positive assertiveness. Listen carefully and summarise what the other person has said then state your own position, and do it without attacking. It is useful to say something like, "I would like to state another point of view." 11. Telephone Etiquette Your voice is all you have got to make the telephone conversation lively and effective. Clear articulation and correct pronunciation are necessary. But it is not advisable to try to put on an artificial or borrowed accent. Speed of speaking can affect clarity to some extent. Average speaking speed is about 150 words a minute; talking very fast not only affects clarity, but may also give the impression of being in a hurry; very slow talkers give the impression of being dull. A high-pitched voice is un- pleasant and may appear uncultured; an extremely low pitch can sound mechanical. People who have a loud voice appear to be brash and overbearing; very soft speakers cannot be heard clearly, and may seem shy. You need to find the right speed, pitch and volume that makes you sound clear and easy to follow. Tone is the expressiveness of the voice. It carries 38% of the load of communication; you have to make it count. A great deal of tone depends on the speaker's attitude and state of mind. Making a call: Prepare in advance before making a call, and plan all questions and comments. Collect all required information, files, papers that may be needed. Have paper and pen at hand. Greet; as soon as the call is answered, return the greeting and identify yourself, and ask for the person to whom you want to speak. Concentrate; eliminate all distractions and pay attention only to the person you have called. Use simple language. Never use slang. Say "yes" not "yah". Take notes; jot down names, addresses, telephone numbers and other important points which need to be remembered and/or passed on to others and may be needed later. Ask questions; if something is not clear, ask for clarification or explanation and listen carefully. Use conversation cues; saying "I see" or ''Yes'' at the proper time shows the speaker that you are listening, and encourages him/her to continue speaking. Listen between the lines; tone of voice conveys a good deal. Summarise; the main points should be repeated at the end to check the understanding of both parties. End the call politely; say "thank you" for giving you time (or information or help), indicate the next step, if required. Wish the time of the day pleasantly and replace the receiver gently. The person who made the call should put down the receiver first; within the organisation, the senior should end the call; in case of a call to or from a customer, the customer should end the call. Taking a call Answer the call promptly, on the first or second ring; not more than three in any case. Identify yourself by a phrase like, "Suresh Nair here" or "Suresh speaking" or National Bank, Kisumu branch, Suresh Nair speaking" or "Mrs Philo-pose, Training Officer" and greet good morning or good evening as suitable. This usually prompts the speaker to identity him-self/herself; if it does not, ask, "May I know who's calling?" (not "who is this?" or "who is speaking?") Smile when you speak, it helps to make a positive welcoming impression with the tone of the voice. Listen carefully; it is bad manners to interrupt. Get any clarifications after the person has paused for a response. Take responsibility to help; connect to the right person (after saying so) or offer to get the required information. Take down a message if necessary; get all points correct (and check by reading out if it is long or complicated). Check all dates, 26 | P a g e addresses, figures and spellings of names. (Writing down the phonetic spelling for correct pronunciation saves much embarrassment later). Use the caller's name (correctly); it shows you are tuned in and attentive. If you have to leave the telephone to get some information ask if the caller would like to hold on or would like you to call back. And be sure to call back with the information. Keep your cool and be patient with a difficult caller. Cellular Phone Etiquette Cell phone should be used only in an emergency. If it is necessary to make or take a call, keep it short and discreet. If other people are present, excuse yourself. Attention to present company is always important; never give the impression that speaking to someone else is more important than those present. Move to a quiet corner so as not to bother others. Switch off the cell phone when entering a meeting or a lecture hall; also in a theatre, or any other public performance. Use a quiet method of call notification like vibrator or flashing light in a hospital or in any place where the ring is likely to cause severe discomfort. Placing Someone on Hold There should be a very good reason for placing someone on hold; like pulling out the person's file or answering another line. Ask permission before placing the person on hold and do so only after getting the response; taking permission for granted is very impolite. Never keep a person on hold for more than 60 seconds. If you find it will take longer, return and explain, and ask "May I call you back?" And, of course, call back as soon as the other work is done. When you return, thank the person for holding. Leaving a Voice Mail While leaving a voice mail (message on the answering machine) it is important to include your name, telephone number, and company's name if you are calling on your company's behalf. Spell any unusual name. Repeat your name and telephone number at the end of the message. Specify the purpose of the call instead of just saying "please give me a call." Indicate what would be the best time to return your call. If you are likely to be away, say when you will be back or whom to contact in your absence. Anticipate that you may have to leave a message, and prepare what you have to say. This will prevent rambling. NB: the four pillars of politeness in conversation are: Thank you, excuse me, sorry and please. 27 | P a g e TOPIC 7: WRITING SKILLS COURTESY IN WRITING Courtesy in writing is achieved by the following. (a) Appropriateness of format for that kind of writing. (b) Appropriateness of content information (c) Appropriateness of tone: This is created by the word choice and choice of content information, i.e. what information is communicated versus what is left out. It also involves use the courtesy words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the situation requires. (d) Appropriateness of language use, ie. Word choice and expression that show respect and recognition of the audience. It also involves formality or informality of language used. (e) Expression of appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and congratulation when someone achieves something. PUNCTUATION MARKS (a) Comma (b) Colon and semicolon (c) Exclamation mark (d) Full stop (e) Hyphen (f) Question mark (g) Ellipsis (h) Brackets (i) Quotation PARAGRAPHING A paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single topic. There is no rule about the length of a paragraph. It varies according to the need. In a story or a novel, there are some long paragraphs and some short ones. In a book that discussed concepts such as Economics, there may be long paragraphs. In business letters, the paragraphs are short; in a report the paragraphs may be long. A good paragraph has the following characteristics: 1. Topic sentence: A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea the paragraph is going to deal with. It includes the topic and a controlling idea. It may be in the form of a question. Look at these sentences: • Personal relationships such as parent-child, husband-wife, brothers and sisters suffer because most people in cities have busy schedules. • Talking to a sympathetic listener can have a great therapeutic effect. • Skill in Public Speaking is not necessary for everyone. • Shouldn't smoking in public places be made illegal? 2. Adequate development Add supporting ideas to the topic sentence, to develop it fully and adequately. There should be 3 to 6 ideas to support the topic sentence. Of course, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on your purpose. Add RENNS (reasons, examples, names, numbers, senses), which give details and further explain the supporting ideas. Some methods to add supporting details are: • Use examples and illustrations • Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details) 30 | P a g e follow the same style of layout as those sent out of the organisation. However, they are not personalised and are written in the same precise, informative style as memoranda and office orders. Contents: Name and Logo of organisation, Ref. No., Date., Circular No., To., Regards., Body., Signature., Name., Designation., CC., Appendices (if any) d) Public Notices A notice is used when many people in the organisation have to be given the same information. It is the most common method of mass communication within an organisation. A notice is short; the language is simple, and the type is large and well-spaced for easy reading. A notice is put up on the notice board. A copy may also be circulated among staff for signature. A notice is often called an office circular. A notice must be drafted in clear language. It must also be short so as to fit on a single sheet. A notice is an announcement and does not have to give details of the topic. I f it is about a complex topic, it may refer to detailed information available in the office for reference. Contents: Name and logo of the organisation., The title ‘Notice’., Content., Designation e) Electronic mail Content:To., Cc., Bcc., Attachment., Subject, salutation, body, complementary close, name (and designation) f) Letter of application* Content: In the cover letter, you should include how you found out about the position, your primary reasons for being interested in the position, and how your specific qualifications (education, training, work-related experiences, and skills) meet the needs of the organization. g) Curriculum Vitae*/ résumé. A résumé is a one-page or two-page summary of your training, skills, and accomplishments. The eight most common components are. 1. Personal details. Provide your name, address, and telephone number(s), email, gender, age, and optionally marital status, religion, nationality. 2. Job/career objective. Describe your goals in employment you are seeking. 3. Education. Begin with your highest degree and continue in reverse order. 4. Professional training. List any specialized training, courses, and so on. 5. Employment history. List both paid and unpaid work experience, beginning with the most recent. Include employment dates, primary job responsibilities, and accomplishments and awards. 6. Professional affiliations. List professional groups to which you belong and any offices you have held. 7. Special interests and skills. List interests and skills that are related to the job for which you are applying. 8. Referees. These are individuals who know your work, your abilities, and your character. NB: As you construct your résumé, think in terms of how your education, training, skills, and work experience can fit the requirements of the advertised job. Present only those skills and accomplishments that show you can do the job. Emphasize your strengths throughout the résumé, but always be truthful. Above all, your résumé should be written with the company in mind—how can you satisfy the company’s employment needs? h) Press release i) Advertisement j) Minutes 31 | P a g e TOPIC 8: SUMMARY WRITING NOTE MAKING & SUMMARY WRITING Summary means making a shorter version of a text which highlights the main contents of that text and which is in prose form. Importance The study skill enables you to capture the key information in a spoken or written text for future reference. Steps in summarisation (i) Extract the main points onto a working space; you will then use these points to write your first draft. (ii) If the draft is longer than intended, identify the unnecessary words and expressions and reframe your sentences. There could also be unnecessary points which you need to eliminate. (iii) If the draft is too short, you are likely to have left out some important material which you need to include. (iv) Write the final copy making sure it is of the intended length. 32 | P a g e TOPIC 9: REPORT WRITING SKILLS A report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It provides feedback to the managers on various aspects of the organisation. A report presents information needed for reviewing and evaluating progress, for planning future course of action and for taking decisions. Every organisation has a system of routine periodical reporting on the progress and the status of different activities. Besides, management assigns some special studies for the purpose of taking decisions. Special Reports may be written by an individual or by a group of persons to whom the task has been assigned. The report is submitted to the authority that assigned it. Role of Reports a) to review performance of a unit in an organisation b) to keep a check on a continuing activity in an organisation c) to plan for the future needs of the organisation d) to survey the market needs for products or services of an organisation e) to submit standardised information to the management of an organisation etc. Types of Reports Oral report Written report Management reports Operation procedures Production schedules Maintenance, breakdown and accident reports Entrepreneurship and trade reports Internal memos Format/Structure of a Report (Parts of a Report) A report has several sections which enable the writer(s) to lay out all the complex information in an easy-to-read form. All reports do not require all the sections but long reports need to include all the parts. A report generally includes the following sections. The essential sections marked with an asterisk (*); the other sections may be included depending on the type, length and purpose of the report. • Letter of transmittal • Title page* • Table of contents • List of abbreviations and/or glossary • Executive summary/abstract • Introduction * • Body* • Conclusion* • Recommendations • References • Appendices 35 | P a g e in Tamil Nadu between January and June, 2003, and to report with recommendations in one month's time. If the assignment is made by letter by the CEO or any other authority, the terms of reference must give the number and date of the letter, the name and title of the appointing authority, the purpose of the report, and the time allowed. According to the DIO letter no. xxx, dated xxx from Ms Zarine Chowna, M.D., a committee consisting of Ms ABC, Mr DEF and Ms PQR was formed to examine the complaints of customers in xxx region. The committee was asked to report with recommendations in three weeks. An individual writing a letter form report includes the authorization in the first paragraph of the letter. • In accordance with your letter no xxx dated xxx, I have examined xxxx and am presenting the report below. • As you requested, I have investigated xxx and am happy to present my findings as follows. (b) Purpose and Scope This includes information about the area surveyed or the problem examined, and the limitations imposed on the study by constraints like time, finance, or non-availability of data. • Owing to constraints of time, the committee limited its study to five most populous cities in Tamil Nadu. • As data related to xxx was not available, this study is limited to yyy only. 8. Procedure This is the second section of the body of the report and may be numbered II. Methods used for collecting information are stated in this section. It begins with the meetings held by the committee, for example: The committee met three times, on 26 July, and 12 and 20 August, 2007. Other methods of collecting information depend on the nature of the study. There are several methods. (i) Records of the organisation can provide data on production, sales, recruitment, marketing, expenditure, etc. A comparison of figures for different periods may suggest useful conclusions. (ii) Observation consists of watching certain phenomena involved in a problem, and recording what is systematically observed. This method is useful for problems like wastage of time in movement of material in a factory, or the circulation of traffic during certain hours or buyers' behaviour at the point of purchase. (iii) Interrogation is the method of asking questions. It may be done by (a) interviewing, if the number of persons to be questioned is small, (b) getting questionnaires filled in, if the number is large, (c) meeting experts and asking for their opinion, (d) informal talks with randomly selected concerned persons can be used for collecting information, provided that questions are asked skilfully. (iv)Reference to books, directories, standard publications. (v) Visits and personal inspection are necessary when suitable sites are being surveyed or when there is need to observe the procedures or working. (vi)Experimentation is done by various kinds of tests for different kinds of inquiries. The committee's work of investigation is recorded in passive voice, for example, • meetings were held with the members of the sales department. • All the three sites were visited by the committee. • Buyers' choice decisions were observed for three days. 36 | P a g e The value of the findings, conclusions and recommendations depends on the thoroughness of the investigation, and the methods used. Therefore, a report must indicate the methods used for collecting information. 9. Findings This is the most important section. It may be numbered III in a report that numbers the sections. Presentation of findings is the main part of the report. The collected facts and information have to be organized into a presentable form, with headings and sub-headings. The mass of collected information is analysed and divided for easy and readable presentation. The units are joined by a numbering system. The basis for division into units may be time periods, or geographical location, or cause- and-effect, objectives or any factors which enable classification of the data. Details may be in the form of numbered statements. This section may end with a brief summary of the most important findings or some conclusions which emerge from the findings. If the conclusions are very important and significant, there may be a separate section. Use of illustrations in giving the findings makes a report much more readable, clear and effective Such as use diagrams, graphs, charts, plans or maps. There are several advantages in using illustrations. • They clarify and support the verbal analysis. • They can present a large amount of complex data in a compact form and with precision.· • Comparisons of data can be seen at a glance in a graph or chart. • Pictorial representation is more attractive and interesting to most people. Every illustration should have a number and a title and should be mentioned in the text of the report. A table has a number and title placed above it i.e. Table 3.5: Sales volumes, means table number 5 in chapter 3 illustrating volume of sales of different products. Illustration should be placed as near as possible to the point where it is mentioned for the first time in the text. Complicated illustrations are given as Appendices. All diagrams, graphs, charts, maps etc. used as illustrations must have: • proper labels to show what information is being represented • the scale used • the key to colour/shading/symbols used • the date of the information it contains 10. Conclusions. The conclusions are drawn from the major findings. Example: The study concludes that the reducing sales figures are as a result of: (a) Poor marketing strategies (b) Competition from similar products 11. Recommendations This is the last section of the body of the report. Recommendations are proposals for action suggested by the report writer(s) to the appointing authority. This section is included only if the assignment has asked for it. Recommendations should be written in the same order as the problems are stated in the findings, as far as possible. They may be numbered, and must be in the same grammatical form. Recommendations may be introduced with a sentence like, • The committee makes the following recommendations. • The sub-committee recommends the following steps: • The following steps are recommended: 12. Signature, Place, Date A committee report must be signed by all members of the committee. The signing involves Name, Responsibility, Signature and Date. 13. References 37 | P a g e References mean the list of books and articles used by the report writer. It is arranged in alphabetical order of the surnames of the authors. Publication details are usually included. APA 6 th edition is the most common referencing style. 14. Appendix (plural: appendices or appendixes) This is supplementary material given at the end of the report. This may be a copy of a questionnaire used, or plans of buildings, maps or other material which is referred to in the body of the report, but need not appear in the body. Any interested reader can refer to it since it is mentioned in the report. If there is more than one appendix, they are numbered, i.e. APPENDIX IV: MAP OF KIBERA Preparation for report writing a) audience analysis b) reading skills c) data collection d) data analysis Referencing styles (a) American Psychological Association (b) Chicago Preparation of PowerPoint slides 40 | P a g e h) Negotiation Meeting: This is characterized by the presence of two clearly competing sides. When parties with competing interests like buyer-and-seller, or two separate organisations which want to collaborate, or employer-and-employee, need to settle their differences, they meet to discuss and arrive at an agreement. Various other meetings of management with the staff, like interviews for selection, reprimand, appraisal and exit interviews and meetings for discussion of grievances also have an element of negotiation. i) Group Discussion: This type of meeting is usually informal. It can be a very stimulating and useful activity in organisations. It helps in understanding a situation, in exploring possibilities and in solving problems as it generates a multiple point of view. It gives a sense of participation to all those who participate in it. It is used as a tool for selecting candidates by observing the behaviour and abilities of the individuals taking part in it. j) Conference: A conference is a meeting of a large group of persons assembled for the purpose of discussing common problems or activities. The number of participants may be anything from 10 to 500 or more; a large conference is divided into small groups for the purpose of discussions. The participants may not be from the same organisation. The conference is a tool of learning and training and development; members pool together and share their knowledge and experience, and discuss their problems. It is an enriching activity. It does not have a task to complete; any conclusions that are arrived at during the discussions are included in a report of the conference. Copies of the report are given to the participants and their organisations. A conference does not have any authority but it may make recommendations since the participants are persons who have experience and are engaged in the activity and are directly affected by the state of affairs in the field. Meetings can also be classified on the basis of whether they are convened formally or informally. (a) Informal meetings: meetings called at short notice either by means of telephone, by memorandum or by word of mouth to discuss matters which arise suddenly. They normally don’t have an agenda communicated prior to the meeting. (b) Formal meetings: meetings held after the people concerned have been notified in writing earlier. Notification of meeting is normally contains agenda for the meeting. Responsibilities of Participants (members) a) Contributing to the discussion of the agenda, b) Putting the executive to task to explain issues pertaining to the agenda, c) Passing resolutions on policies and decisions, d) Implementing decision of meetings as are assigned or required. Preparation for a meeting (i) The secretary in consultation with the chairperson prepares a notice and gives to all members entitled to attend. The notification states the date, venue and time and a list of the agenda. (ii) The secretary ensures the venue is prepared for the meeting such as providing enough seats and organising the sitting arrangement. (iii) The secretary ensures availability of enough writing material for all members. (iv) The secretary ensures availability of refreshments such as water, juice or soda. (v) The secretary ensures the following have been brought to the meeting: minutes of previous meeting, relevant files and papers, a short-hand notebook for taking notes, attendance record and standing orders. (vi) Sound equipment to be tested, projection equipment plugged in, tested, and focussed and properly levelled 41 | P a g e (vii) Facilities for display availed and checked. (viii) Extension cords placed properly so that no one will trip over them (ix) Provision for darkening the room if necessary (x) Exhibits, projection material, arranged in required sequence Challenges in conduct of meetings and minute writing 1) Showing up late 2) Lack of written agenda 3) Failing to come up with concrete action points 4) Lack of attention when members use laptops and phones. 5) Finishing on Time: Meetings can run overtime and consequently many agenda items can get left behind or they don’t get adequate attention. There are various reasons why meetings run overtime, some of which include:  The meeting did not start on time  Agenda was not based on importance thus devoting too much time on items of lesser importance  The meeting flow was not managed well  Agenda had too much on it to cover in one meeting How to finish on time  Start your meeting On Time  Designate a timekeeper to monitor time of each item to be discussed and communicate times with participants  Place topics of importance or more discussion at the top of agenda 6) Inability to Make Decisions: Sometimes meetings drag on as participants struggle to make decisions or reach a consensus. The responsibility for making sure consensus is reached lies squarely on the leader. Some reasons why groups seem unable to consensus include:  Goals and outcomes are not made clear  Certain participants get side tracked on peripheral issues  Philosophical issues divide people How to facilitate groups to make a decision  Create and convey goals and outcomes for agenda topic that require decisions.  Seek out or present alternatives supported by the data  Assist participants getting through a block or impasse by restating the initial questions and regaining focus 7) Attendance: When key stakeholders or influential participants do not attend, decisions that are made may be questioned later. Idea and collaboration are limited and other participants may become frustrated. Some strategies to ensure attendance at meetings include: 42 | P a g e  Diagnose the problem for the absence and have discussion with those members accordingly  Ensure that your meetings are worthy of peoples time by utilizing the practices mentioned earlier 8) Dominant Participants: Dominant participants can stifle creativity, collaboration, and problem solving but they often have good ideas. Utilize their ideas by guiding their energies and allow others to contribute. Some types of Dominant Participants include: 1) The Windbag: comments too frequently, dominate discussions and is often the first person to speak on issues How to Handle:  Limit remark time at the onset of the meeting  Target questions or comments to other members by using their name  Limit leadership responsibility to this member 2) The Rambler: speaks a great deal, often gets off track in remarks How to Handle:  Limit remark time at the onset of the meeting  When participant pauses, redirect and get back on track  Consider making this person a recorder thus neutralizing their time for remarks  Limit leadership responsibility to this member 3) The Homesteader: takes on a point of view or makes a decision and is then reluctant, unable or unwilling to budge or consider alternatives How to Handle:  Utilize hints for collaboration and consensus building  Use data and facts to reassure the point and redirect 9) Silent Participants: Silent participants have different reasons for being that way. Some people are reticent by nature, others are afraid of ridicule or dismissal. It is you goal as the leader to engage everyone. Some Silent Participants include:  The Mummy: reluctant or unwilling to participate. Reasons may include; confusion of the issues, feeling of inferiority or superiority, indifference. How to Handle:  Give the participant a role or duty  Ask direct questions using their name 10) Lack of Follow-Through on Tasks The effectiveness of a meeting can be assessed in the outcomes. If leaders do not follow- through on decisions, action plans, or issues after the meeting, then there will be questions as 45 | P a g e at hand. Be sure to record the speaker and the focus of the presentation as it concerns the topic.  Verbatim minutes, like transcripts, are a record of every single word said at a meeting. They are often long and can be difficult to skim for a particular piece of information. With the exception of courtroom proceedings and Congress, a verbatim record of a meeting is rarely necessary. Verbatim minutes will not always follow the agenda. Minute writing Structure of minutes - Title - Attendance (present, absent, apologies) - In-attendance - List of agenda - Preliminaries - Confirmation - Business of the day - A.O.B - Adjournment - Provision for signing Language and tone - Past tense, reported speech, objective tone 46 | P a g e TOPIC 11: INTERVIEWS One of the most important communication skills you can learn is your interviewing skills— both as the interviewer and the interviewee. An interview is a communication transaction in which an interviewer engages in questioning and discussion with an interviewee to gather information. Types of interview a) Information gathering interview (academic research interview, journalistic interview, product survey) The most common type of interview is the information-gathering interview, such as an interview with an expert for a report, term paper, or speech. Other types of information-gathering interviews include those conducted by journalists for publication, product survey researchers who interview shoppers in your local mall, and organizational researchers who interview employees to collect data on management effectiveness and production methods. b) Employment interview. THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW Your primary goal in an employment interview is to sell yourself, your accomplishments, and your skills. You will also be seeing if the organization will meet your goals and needs. During an employment interview, you have only one chance to make a good impression, so the preparation and skill you bring to the interview will determine your overall success. Preparing for the Interview Once you have been asked for an interview, you can begin the third step in the interviewing process—preparing for the interview. 1. Researching the company. Very few applicants ever research a company before an interview. You will make a strong impression if you show familiarity with the organization you are attempting to join. Researching the company will also help you anticipate questions the interviewer might ask and enhance your responses. Try to learn as much as possible about its history, its products and services, its corporate culture, its major competition, and the department you are hoping to join. Review its annual report, corporate pamphlets, relevant journal articles, or related local newspaper articles. If you know any employees of the company, interview them for important information or search their website. 2. Reviewing possible interview questions. Although you can never be totally certain about the exact questions you will be asked, there are some fairly common topics that are addressed in almost every interview. Here is a list of commonly asked questions during an interview: 1) Explain how you schedule your time during an average day. 2) How do you prioritize tasks when you have a great deal to do? 3) Why did you select our company for employment? 4) What training, skills, abilities, and experiences can you contribute to our company? 5) As a worker, what are your strengths? 6) As a worker, what are your weaknesses? (Remember to present them as challenges for your growth or lessons you have learned.) 47 | P a g e 7) Tell me about a time when you had to demonstrate leadership. How did others respond to you? How did the situation turn out? 8) If you knew that this job would require you to work fifty hours a week for the next two months, would you still be interested in it? Why or why not? 9) Tell me about a time when you had to stand up for a decision you made, even if it made you unpopular. How did you react? How did you feel? 10) Tell me about a time when you experienced interpersonal conflict with a co-worker or colleague. What did you do? How did it turn out? How did you feel? 11) Where do you see yourself ten years from now? What are some things you would like to accomplish in your lifetime? 3. Conduct interview role-play. Writer Leo Tolstoy once observed that “Everyone thinks of changing the world, but no one thinks about changing themselves.” One of the most beneficial activities you can do as you prepare for your interview is to change yourself—to improve your communication skills by videotaping an interview role-playing situation. 4. Bring interview materials. It’s a good idea to bring a copy of your résumé to the interview, even though the interviewer supposedly has one. Also bring any additional materials you feel could be of interest to the interviewer—a pamphlet you designed, an article you authored, and so on. Carry whatever can fit easily into your briefcase. Remember to bring the address, phone number, and name of the interviewer. Carry originals and photocopies of your academic and other certificates. 5. Dress professionally. This is the occasion to wear your best clothes. Men should dress in a suit or sports coat, dress shirt, and tie; women in a tailored dress or skirted suit. Make sure your clothes are clean and well pressed. Wear dress shoes and shine them before leaving the house. Don’t wear excessive jewellery and keep your perfume or aftershave to a minimum. Dress professionally for the occasion. It not only shows respect for the interviewer and the company, it also communicates respect for yourself. 6. Arrive fifteen minutes early. This is not the time to be late. Don’t make a poor impression as by showing up ten minutes late. Leave earlier than necessary. Take those extra minutes to sit in your car and collect yourself before walking into the building. Those few minutes of silence will help to focus and calm you. Notify the receptionist five to ten minutes before your appointment that you have arrived and whom you are scheduled to see. Make sure you smile and sound friendly, because the interview is beginning now with the receptionist. He may be asked for his impressions of you after the interview. Conducting the interview 1. Greet the interviewer. Greet your interviewer with a firm handshake, direct eye contact, a smile, and a friendly hello. Don’t offer your hand first; let the interviewer(s) do it. Confirm the pronunciation of the interviewer’s last name if you’re uncertain. Address the interviewer as Mr., Ms., Mrs., or Dr. during the interview. Don’t use the interviewer’s first name. 2. Speak and act in a pleasant manner. Much of the interviewer’s impressions of you will be based on your voice and how you come across nonverbally. Is your voice pleasant to listen to? Is your voice warm and conversational in tone? Are you speaking at a comfortable rate? Don’t rush your words. Don’t force your sentences. Avoid slang and expressions that are not familiar to the interviewer or appropriate for the occasion. Sit in a relaxed, comfortable manner, without appearing sloppy or lazy. Use direct eye contact when responding to questions, but don’t stare at the interviewer for the entire time. Be direct, yet natural. Remember to smile. Your smile will communicate 50 | P a g e TOPIC 12: PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE Meaning of public relations and customer care Public Relations is about reputation - the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you.Public Relations is the discipline which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behavior. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics. Customer care is the work of looking after customers and ensuring their satisfaction with one's business and its goods or services. Types of customers Customers can be of following types: 1) Loyal Customers- These types of customers are less in numbers but promote more sales and profit as compared to other customers as these are the ones which are completely satisfied. These customers revisit the organization over times hence it is crucial to interact and keep in touch with them on a regular basis and invest much time and effort with them. Loyal customers want individual attention and that demands polite and respectful responses from supplier. 2) Discount Customers- Discount customers are also frequent visitors but they are only a part of business when offered with discounts on regular products and brands or they buy only low cost products. More is the discount the more they tend towards buying. These customers are mostly related to small industries or the industries that focus on low or marginal investments on products. Focus on these types of customers is also important as they also promote distinguished part of profit into business. 3) Impulsive Customers- These customers are difficult to convince as they want to do the business in urge or caprice. They don’t have any specific item into their product list but urge to buy what they find good and productive at that point of time. Handling these customers is a challenge as they are not particularly looking for a product and want the supplier to display all the useful products they have in their tally in front of them so that they can buy what they like from that display. If impulsive customers are treated accordingly then there is high probability that these customers could be a responsible for high percentage of selling. 4) Need Based Customers- These customers are product specific and only tend to buy items only to which they are habitual or have a specific need for them. These are frequent customers but do not become a part of buying most of the times so it is difficult to satisfy them. These customers should be handled positively by showing them ways and reasons to switch to other similar products and brands and initiating them to buy these. These customers could possibly be lost if not tackled efficiently with positive interaction. 5) Wandering Customers- These are the least profitable customers as sometimes they themselves are not sure what to buy. These customers are normally new in industry and most of the times visit suppliers only for confirming their needs on products. They investigate features of most prominent products in the market but do not buy any of those or show least interest in buying. To grab such customers they should be properly informed about the various positive features of the products so that they develop a sense of interest. An organization should always focus on loyal customers and should expand or multiply the product range to leverage impulsive customers. For other types of customers strategies should be renovated and enhanced for turning out these customers to satisfy their needs and modify these types of customers to let them fall under loyal and impulsive category. 51 | P a g e Role of public relations and customer care Almost all large organizations either have a public relations department or outsource their public relations needs to a company. Public relations is seen as a vital part of maintaining the organization’s image and of communicating its message to its customers, investors and the general public. A positive perception of a company or non-profit can increase its sales and improve its bottom line. The functions and key tasks of a public relations specialist can be varied. 1. Public Image Strategy Public relations strategists will work with top executives in the organization to craft an overview of how the company wants to be perceived, and how it is going to project a positive image. This can involve focusing in on exactly the right message, and then deciding on the broad outlines of a campaign to disseminate that message. 2. Outreach Events Public relations professionals often arrange events to raise the profile of the organization or lend its brand and name to a charitable event that represents the philosophy of the company. Think of a corporation sponsoring a Special Olympics event, or a hospital organizing a health outreach day in its town. 3. Media Relations Talking with the media is a core function of public relations departments. Public relations professionals field questions from reporters, arrange for interviews with key individuals in the organization and write press releases to make the media aware of company events or achievements. 4. Social Media One emerging function of public relations is to maximize an organization’s positive use of social media to build its image. Managing a Twitter feed, a Facebook page and a YouTube channel are all vital ways to connect with possible new customers or stakeholders. Monitoring public comment about the organization on the Internet can also give PR professionals early warning of any emerging trends or problems. 5. Handling Emergencies Sometimes a company or organization is struck by a disastrous event that ruins its public image. This might be an oil company that has to deal with a high profile spill, or a food company that has a contamination event. Public relations professionals decide how the organization will repair the damage to its image, communicate how it is dealing with the problem and regain control of its message. Interpersonal and PR skills There are certain customer service skills that every employee must master if they are forward- facing with customers. Without them, you run the risk of finding your business in an embarrassing customer service train-wreck, or you'll simply lose customers as your service continues to let people down. Luckily, there are a few universal skills that every support member can master that will drastically improve their interactions with customers. 1. Patience If you don't see this near the top of a customer service skills list, you should just stop reading. Not only is patience important to customers, who often reach out to support when they are confused and frustrated, but it's also important to the business at large: we've shown you before that great service beats fast service every single time. If you deal with customers on a daily basis, be sure to stay patient when they come to you stumped and frustrated, but also be sure to take the time to truly figure out what they want — they'd rather get competent service than be rushed out the door! 2. Attentiveness 52 | P a g e The ability to really listen to customers is so crucial for providing great service for a number of reasons. Not only is it important to pay attention to individual customer interactions (watching the language/terms that they use to describe their problems), but it's also important to be mindful and attentive to the feedback that you receive at large. For instance, customers may not be saying it outright, but perhaps there is a pervasive feeling that your software's dashboard isn't laid out correctly. 3. Clear Communication Skills Make sure you're getting to the problem at hand quickly; customers don't need your life story or to hear about how your day is going. More importantly, you need to be cautious about how some of your communication habits translate to customers, and it's best to err on the side of caution whenever you find yourself questioning a situation. When it comes to important points that you need to relay clearly to customers, keep it simple and leave nothing to doubt. 4. Knowledge of the Product The best forward-facing employees in your company will work on having a deep knowledge of how your product works. It's not that every single team member should be able to build your product from scratch, but rather they should know the ins and outs of how your product works, just like a customer who uses it everyday would. Without knowing your product from front-to-back, you won't know how to help customers when they run into problems. 5. Ability to Use "Positive Language" Sounds like fluffy nonsense, but your ability to make minor changes in your conversational patterns can truly go a long way in creating happy customers. Language is a very important part of persuasion, and people (especially customers) create perceptions about you and your company based off of the language that you use. 6. Acting Skills Sometimes you're going to come across people that you'll never be able to make happy. Situations outside of your control (they had a terrible day, or they are just a natural-born complainer) will sometimes creep into your usual support routine, and you'll be greeted with those "barnacle" customers that seem to want nothing else but to pull you down. Every great customer service rep will have those basic acting skills necessary to maintain their usual cheery persona in spite of dealing with people who may be just plain grumpy. 7. Time Management Skills Hey, despite my many research-backed rants on why you should spend more time with customers, the bottom line is that there is a limit, and you need to be concerned with getting customers what they want in an efficient manner. The trick here is that this should also be applied when realizing when you simply cannot help a customer. If you don't know the solution to a problem, the best kind of support member will get a customer over to someone who does. Don't waste time trying to go above and beyond for a customer in an area where you will just end up wasting both of your time! 8. Ability to "Read" Customers You won't always be able to see customers face-to-face, and in many instances (nowadays) you won't even hear a customer's voice! That doesn't exempt you from understanding some basic principles of behavioral psychology and being able to "read" the customer's current emotional state. This is an important part of the personalization process as well, because it takes knowing your customers to create a personal experience for them. More importantly though, this skill is essential because you don't want to mis-read a customer and end up losing them due to confusion and miscommunication. Look and listen for subtle clues about their current mood, patience level, personality, etc., and you'll go far in keeping your customer interactions positive. 9. A Calming Presence