Crime Prevention: Approaches, Ethical Considerations, and Models, Summaries of Criminal Justice

Download Crime Prevention: Approaches, Ethical Considerations, and Models and more Summaries Criminal Justice in PDF only on Docsity! Crime Prevention Welcome students to this class. Below are some introductory notes – not necessarily to be read to the class. Crime prevention is a broad topic that encompasses a great many programs and initiatives. A great diversity of crimes can be the target of crime prevention and different approaches to crime prevention target different factors contributing to crime. Consequently, a diversity of actors will frequently be engaged in efforts to prevent crime. This can range from international agencies such as the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, to national crime prevention bodies, down to local actors. Government, non-government, civil society, voluntary, activist, private sector and individual citizens can and do engage in crime prevention activities. Preventing crime produces many positive outcomes. The prevention or non- occurrence of some future criminal incident reduces the human costs for victims of crime. Lives can be saved, physical harm can be prevented, and financial lost can be minimised. For this reason, crime prevention is very attractive to many governments and other groups, and it is the reason why crime prevention has become an important area of policy and practice. However, crime prevention is not without problems. Governments and private entities can, in the name of crime prevention, seek to control and monitor 1 citizens; crime prevention can become a commodity and sold to those who can afford it, leaving those who cannot even more insecure; efforts to prevent crime can stigmatise people and communities; and victims can be blamed for contributing to their own victimisation. Therefore, it is always important to consider the negative unintended consequences of efforts to prevent crime. It is important to acknowledge that there are significant legal, cultural and political differences across regional and local contexts that impact on how crime prevention is considered and practiced. Even the term ‘crime prevention’ will be used differently, if at all, across regions of the world. The body of knowledge about crime prevention often comes from a small number of countries and regions, which is highly problematic. Particular approaches might work well in one context but have negative impacts in another. 1 measures should always be considered. • Measuring the impact of the diverse techniques employed to prevent crime is difficult. For example, an early intervention program involving home visits to new parents might well help families but it can be difficult demonstrating the crime prevention benefits that accrue many years after the intervention. 3 Definition The Prevention of Crime comprises: “strategies and measures that seek to reduce the risk of crimes occurring, and their potential harmful effects on individuals and society, including fear of crime, by intervening to influence their multiple causes” (https://www.unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/Handbook_on_Crime_Prevention_Guidelines_- _Making_them_work.pdf) Invite the students to reflect on the definition. Ask them to consider and discuss what might be some common crime types/problems that we might seek to prevent. Consider and discuss what might be the multiple causes of crime. Consider and discuss which agencies might be involved. Possible answers/discussion points: • Common crime types/problems – each jurisdiction will define what is classified as a crime. Most criminal law statutes or laws will cover many thousands of offences ranging from the minor (such as not paying to ride on public transport or consuming alcohol in a public place) to the major (such as murder, sexual assault, drug trafficking). This means that decisions often need to be made about which crimes we might seek to prevent, which can result in focus and resources perhaps unfairly or inappropriately going to particular crime types. • The causes of crime might vary depending upon the offence, the perpetrator and the context. Some crimes might be motivated by need, such as theft of food; others might be motivated by greed, such as fraud to acquire greater wealth and assets; others might be politically motivated, such as anti- government graffiti. It is not possible in this Module to explore all causes of crime. This exercise is merely designed to trigger discussion of the diverse, and often inter-connected, causes of crime. 4 Terminology Invite students to define these terms. This can be done in small groups or as a larger group. Note that the terms might need to be modified to reflect regional and/or local preferences in terminology. 5 • ‘Tertiary crime prevention deals with actual offenders and involves intervention in their lives in such a fashion that they will not commit further offenses’. This form of prevention is generally linked to criminal justice agencies, particularly courts, prisons and community correctional agencies. Rehabilitation programs offered by these agencies that seek to prevent further offeoffending would be considered to be forms of tertiary crime prevention. 7 Models of Prevention The typology proposed by Tonry and Farrington is frequently used and includes four major prevention strategies: “law enforcement, and developmental, community, and situational prevention” (Tonry, M. and Farrington, D. (1995) ‘Preface’, in Tonry, M. and Farrington, D. (eds) Building a Safer Society: Strategies Approaches to Crime Prevention, Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Volume 19, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London: 1-2). Briefly introduce this typology. 8 Model Explanation Examples Developmental Often known as early intervention, developmental crime prevention seeks to address the early causes of criminality. Reducing community and individual risk factors and increasing protective factors, help to prevent crime later in life. The most celebrated examples of developmental crime prevention include parenting programs, school enrichment initiatives like skills training, pre-school regimes and improvements in transition to school arrangements. Community / Social Strengthening neighbourhoods helps prevent crime. Local communities that have strong bonds and where people know each other are generally less prone to experience crime. Enhancing ‘social capital’ or the relationships between people can be beneficial in protecting people from crime. Community building activities, provision of welfare services and increasing community support groups all help to enhance the sense of community and can contribution to the prevention of crime. Situational Stopping the opportunities for crime is an effective way of preventing crime. Increasing the risks of detection, reducing the rewards for offending and increasing the difficulty of offending are all ways to prevent crime. Situational crime prevention can be as simple as installing locks and alarms, increasing surveillance through lighting and making buildings harder to enter, damage or hide near. Law Enforcement / Criminal Justice This form of crime prevention is associated with the criminal justice system - police, courts and prisons – and is the most commonly understood form of crime prevention. Problem-oriented policing can help prevent recurring problems requiring a policing response through detailed analysis of crime problems and inter-agency responses; community-oriented policing is a strategy for encouraging the public to act as partners with the police in preventing and managing crime; treatment programs offered through court processes can address causes of crime; rehabilitation programs in prison can prevent re-offending. Discuss these different approaches to crime prevention. This could be done as an exercise. The table could be copied and key text removed. Students could then be invited to define the forms of crime prevention and to identify examples. This could be done individually, in pairs, small groups or as a larger group. Mention that each model will now be dealt with in a little detail. 9 Case Study: Elmira Home Visiting Program • The seminal Elmira prenatal and infancy home visiting program provided support to 400 young mothers who were single or from low socioeconomic backgrounds in the city of Elmira, New York. It intended to address issues of poor birth outcomes, child maltreatment, welfare dependence and poor maternal life courses. Nurses visited young mothers on a bi-weekly basis until their child reached the age of two. The home visitation sessions were focused on providing prenatal care, baby health care and support to keep the young mothers’ lives on track, through helping them find employment, planning for the future or linking them up with much needed services within the community. • Very positive outcomes emerged from the Elmira home visitation program. Participants in the home visitation program exhibited the following outcomes in comparison the control group (Olds et al, 1999 p.44): improved pregnancy outcomes; better parenting skills; higher maternal employment; fewer and more widely spaced pregnancies; more mothers returned to education; less abuse and/or neglect the children; less smoking and drinking; and by the time the children were at 15 years of age, fewer arrests and convictions (both mother and child). • The home visitation program was also successful in delivering considerable cost savings for the government. Every $1USD spent on the home visitation program resulted in future savings of $4USD (Olds et al, 1999, p.56). • Olds, David L., Henderson, Charles R., Kitzman, Harriet J., Eckenrode, John J., Cole, Robert E. and Tatelbaum, Robert C. (1999) “Prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses: recent findings.” Future Child vol.9, no.1. • Olds, David L. (2002) “Prenatal and Infancy Home Visiting by Nurses: From Randomized Trials to Community Replication.” Prevention Science vol.3, no.3. Discuss this case study. In particular, it is beneficial to focus on the nature of the intervention, the benefits and the cost-benefit analysis. It is also important to consider the challenges of taking programs delivered at this scale and trying to deliver them across many communities. Invariably, problems in scaling-up arise which means that we do not always get the same benefits when taking small, successful programs to scale. 12 Community Crime Prevention • “Community crime prevention refers to actions intended to change the social conditions that are believed to sustain crime in residential communities. It concentrates on the ability of local social institutions to reduce crime” (Hope, T. (1995) ‘Community crime prevention’, in M Tonry & D Farrington (eds.) Building a safer community: strategic approaches to crime prevention, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 21) • Generally speaking, high levels of informal social control and collective efficacy in local communities result in lower crime. The following provides an insight into the nature of these constructs: ►“Sampson and his coauthors then introduced the term ‘collective efficacy’, which is defined in terms of the neighbourhood’s ability to maintain order in public spaces such as streets, sidewalks, and parks. Collective efficacy is implemented when neighbourhood residents take over actions to maintain public order, such as by complaining to the authorities or by organizing neighbourhood watch programs. The authors argued that residents take such actions only when ‘cohesion and mutual trust’ in the neighbourhood is linked to ‘shared expectations for intervening in support of neighbourhood social control’. If either the mutual trust or the shared expectations are absent, then residents will be unlikely to act when disorder invades public space” (Vold et al, 2002, Theoretical Criminology, pages 131- 132) Introduce community crime prevention through this slide. 13 Case Study: Communities that Care • Communities That Care (CTC) is a community-based prevention system. CTC aims to promote the healthy development of children and young people through long term community planning to prevent health and social problems. • CTC guides communities towards identifying and understanding local needs, setting priorities and implementing effective evidence-based interventions to address those needs. The CTC model has been implemented in numerous countries around the world and is currently operating in over 500 communities. • CTC is founded upon the ‘Social Development Strategy’, it is a strategy that promotes positive youth development by organising the all the evidence-based protective factors into a simple strategy for action. It comprises of the following five key components (CTC, 2018): ► Healthy beliefs and clear standards of behaviour – young people are more likely to engage in prosocial and responsible behaviour when they are surrounded by teachers, parents and a community that communicates healthy beliefs and standards ► Bonding – young people need to develop and maintain strong relationships with those who hold healthy beliefs and clear standards ► Opportunities – developmentally appropriate opportunities should be provided to young people, for active participation and meaningful interaction with prosocial others ► Skills – young people should be taught the skills they need to succeed in life ► Recognition – consistent, specific praise and recognition should be provided to young people for effort, improvement and achievement • Results reported eight years after implementation of the CTC prevention system reveal that: ► Students in CTC communities were more likely than students in control communities to have abstained from any drug use, smoking cigarettes, and engaging in delinquency; and ► They were also less likely to ever have committed a violent act. • More information about CTC and their prevention programs can be found at https://www.communitiesthatcare.org.au/ or https://www.communitiesthatcare.net/ This case study provides an example of community crime prevention. Discuss the multiple strategies employed through this approach. Invite students to visit the websites provided and to review relevant materials. Consider asking students what might be some of the challenges of delivering interventions and programs like these? Some possible answers/discussions points: • Maintaining political will for long-term investment – programs of this kind often take a long time to produce outcomes (which is similar to developmental crime prevention) • Combating international trends that impact on local crime trends through programs designed to operate at the local or community level • Everyone’s but no one’s responsibility - “The crux of the problem is that in this new-found era of ‘crime is everybody’s problem’, responsibility has become so diffused as to no longer reside anywhere in particular, with all the problems for funding to which that gives rise” (Crawford, A. (1998) Crime Prevention and Community Safety: Politics, Policies and Practices, Longman, Harlow: page 122) • Some communities and neighbourhoods will feel that they are being labelled and stigmatised if they are selected for a program or intervention • There are numerous difficulties of conducting quality evaluations when multiple programs are running simultaneously 14 16 Elements of a Criminal Act – The Crime Triangle Motivated Offender Suitable Target / Victim Absence of Capable Guardian Felson, M. and Cohen, L. E. (1980) ‘Human Ecology and Crime: A Routine Activity Approach’, Human Ecology, Vol. 8, No. 4: 392. Discuss the Crime Triangle – a key aspect of situational crime prevention.. Consider what might assist motivated offenders to come together with suitable targets/victims in time and space in the absence of capable guardians. This encourages some consideration of the way that cities and neighbourhoods are constructed and operate. It also raises the impact of work and leisure routines, population densities, urban sprawl, increasing consumer items of increasing portability, etc. 17 25 Opportunity-Reducing Techniques Increase the Effort Increase the Risks Reduce the Rewards Reduce Provocations Remove the Excuses 1. Target Harden Steering column locks Anti-robbery screens Tamper-proof packaging 6. Extend guardianship Take routine precautions ‘Cocoon’ neighbourhood watch 11. Conceal targets Off-street parking Gender-neutral phone directories Unmarked bullion trucks 16. Reduced frustrations and stress Efficient queues and polite service Expanded seating Soothing music/muted lights 21. Set rules Rental agreements Harassment codes Hotel registrations 1. Control access to facilities Entry phones Electronic card access Baggage screening 7. Assist natural surveillance Improved street lighting Defensible space design Support whistleblowers 12. Remove targets  Removable car radio  Women’s refuges  Pre-paid phone cards for pay phones 17. Avoid disputes Separate enclosures for rival soccer fans Reduce crowding in pubs Fixed cab fares 22. Post instructions  ‘No parking’  ‘Private property’  ‘Extinguish camp fires’ 1. Screen exits Ticket needed for exit Export documents Electronic merchandise tags 8. Reduce anonymity Taxi driver IDs ‘How’s my driving?’ decals School uniforms 13. Identify property  Property marking  Vehicle licensing and parts marking  Cattle branding 18. Reduce emotional arousal  Controls on violent pornography  Enforce good behaviour on soccer field  Prohibit racial slurs 23. Alert conscience  Roadside speed display boards  Signatures for customs declarations  ‘Shoplifting is stealing’ 1. Deflect Offenders  Street closures  Separate bathrooms for women  Disperse pubs 9. Utilise place managers CCTV for double-decker buses Two clerks for convenience stores Reward vigilance 14. Disrupt markets Monitor pawn shops Controls on classified ads License street vendors 19. Neutralise peer pressure ‘Idiots drink and drive’ ‘It’s OK to say no’ Disperse troublemakers at school 24. Assist compliance Easy library check-out Public lavatories Litter bins 1. Control tools/weapons ‘Smart’ guns Disabling stolen mobile phones Restrict spray paint to juveniles 10. Strengthen formal surveillance Red light cameras Burglar alarms Security guards 15. Deny benefits  Ink merchandise tags  Graffiti cleaning  Speed humps 20. Discourage imitation  Rapid repair of vandalism  V-chips in TVs  Censor details of modus operandi 25. Control drugs and alcohol  Breathalysers in pubs  Server intervention  Alcohol-free events Cornish, D. B. and Clarke, R. V. (2003) ‘Opportunities, precipitators and criminal decisions: A reply to Wortley’s critique of situational crime prevention’, in Smith, M. and Cornish, D. B. (eds) Theory for Situational Crime Prevention, Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 16, Criminal Justice Press, Monsey, New York. Situational crime prevention techniques rest on five key pillars: 1. Increasing the effort 2. Increasing the risks 3. Reducing he rewards 4. Reducing provocations 5. Removing the excuses This table provides an overview of the different types of situational crime prevention. Ask students to review the 25 opportunity-reducing techniques and to identify those techniques currently being used in their local area. Examples of Situational Crime Prevention Source: https://www.watcherprotect.com/electronic-article-surveillance-eas/ Electronic Article Surveillance Car Locking Devices and Immobilisers Source: https://www.confused.com/car-insurance/guides/car-engine-immobilisers-alarms-trackersBank Counter Screens Source: http://www.architecturalarmour.com/security-sectors/bank-counters-security-desks Airport Security Source: https://www.thedailymeal.com/travel/things-you-didn-t-know-you-could-bring-through-airport-security-slideshow Use these images as a prompt for further consideration about situational crime prevention techniques operating in their local area. 18 Law Enforcement / Criminal Justice Crime Prevention “deals with offending after it has happened, and involves intervention in the lives of known offenders in such a fashion that they will not commit further offences. In so far as it is preventative, it operates through incapacitation and individual deterrence, and perhaps offers the opportunity of treatment in prisons or through other sentencing options (Cameron, M. and Laycock, G. (2002) ‘Crime prevention in Australia’, in Graycar, A. and Grabosky, P. (eds.) The Cambridge handbook of Australian criminology, Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Australia: 314). The final form of crime prevention, according to the Tonry and Farrington typology, is law enforcement or criminal justice prevention. Discuss the definition provided here. Note that this aspect of crime prevention will not be covered in detail. Other Modules deal with these elements in more detail including: • Module 3: Access to Legal Aid • Module 5: Police Accountability, Integrity and Oversight • Module 6: Prison Reform • Module 7: Alternatives to Imprisonment • Module 8: Restorative Justice • Module 14: Independence of the Judiciary and Role of Prosecutors 20 Policing for Prevention Community-based Policing Problem-oriented Policing Pulling Levers or Focused Deterrence Policing This approach recognises that police are of the people and for the people. Without community support police are not very effective because a considerable amount of crime is cleared as a result of reports from community members. Community- based policing favours tactics which connect the police to local communities. This might be through police involvement in community events; the creation of police-community committees to establish local policing priorities; the creation of community-based roles to help the police connect with hard-to-reach groups such as those from minority communities. This approach, developed by Professor Herman Goldstein, seeks to ensure a more responsive policing. Rather than just responding to calls for service, Goldstein suggested that problems should be defined with much greater specificity; that effort needed to be invested in researching the problem; that alternative solutions should be considered (including physical technical changes, changes in the provision of government services, developing new community resources, increased use of city ordinances, and improved use of zoning); and that implementation should be carefully managed (Goldstein 1979, pp. 244–58). This approach utilizes the SARA model. This approach, developed by Professor David Kennedy and his colleagues, seeks to prevent crime through detailed analysis of pressing crime problems, communicating with high risk offenders, providing swift policing resources if these high risk offenders continue to offend while also extending opportunities to exit crime through engaging with relevant support services and mobilising local community voices to condemn ongoing criminal (especially violent) activity. This approach relies and coordination of various services, including police, probation and parole, prosecutors, welfare services, youth workers, local community members impacted by crime, and other agencies. Its effectiveness rests on the swift delivery of a policing and criminal justice response if offending persists and the opportunities to exit offending. Consider these different approaches to policing. Police are key players in crime prevention but they can adopt different approaches to their work. The above lists three approaches that relate to crime prevention. 21 Crime Problem-Solving Approaches https://youtu.be/87Ne-Qic5r4 Various crime problem-solving approaches exist – two are covered here. This video provides a basic introduction of two commonly used crime problem- solving approaches. Play the video (5 mins 9 seconds) and discuss the different approaches. Questions that might be asked (answers provided in bold): • What are the two crime problem-solving approaches introduced in the video? (SARA Model, Ekblom’s 5Is) • What are the five key elements of Ekblom’s 5Is? (Intelligence, Intervention, Implementation, Involvement, Impact) • What are some of the problems with crime data – a key feature of Intelligence? (Accessing appropriate data, reporting of crime, getting data from small local areas) • What are some of the challenges to effective implementation? (Programs drift from original intention, clash of agencies with different perspectives, technological failures, staff changes, electoral changes resulting in different policies). 22 Crime Problem-solving Exercise • Crime problem: There has been a significant increase in the number of burglaries in the local neighbourhood in the last six months. This is causing concern in the community and residents want action. • Prompts: ► What data will be needed to analyse the problem in fine detail? ► How would you decide what should be done to respond? ► What steps might need to be considered in developing a response to this problem? ► What agencies and individuals might usefully be involved? ► How would you determine the impact, remembering to consider both process and impact evaluation issues? Some possible prompts/answers: Ekblom’s 5Is • Intelligence – it will be important to get data from the police. Ideally, the more specific the better. Information about the number of incidents, the location, the day/time of offending, the modus operandi (where known), the nature of the items stolen, any information from arrested offenders, and any information about where items are being sold or traded. Police will be key sources of data but other agencies might also be helpful. • Intervention – based on the intelligence gathered, decisions will need to be made about best approaches. Rather than have the students generate definitive approaches, it will be appropriate to ask them the steps they might move through in deciding what might be done. Ideally, this will involve consulting relevant evidence, consulting relevant stakeholders, and developing a range of interventions. • Implementation – prompt students to think of the potential steps in developing a plan to respond to this crime problem. Again, only indicative steps might be outlined. • Involvement – prompt students to consider which agencies/individuals might participate in developing and implementing a plan. Local and regional variation will determine who might be involved. Nonetheless, police, local government, resident action groups, locksmiths and security personnel, and second hand dealers might be some of those likely to be involved. 25 • Impact – prompt students to discuss how they might evaluate the impact of the response. Consider process and impact evaluation issues such as measuring what was actually done to respond to the problem and whether there is any change in burglary pre and post implementation, while also considering any displacement to other areas. 25 Campbell Collaboration • The Campbell Collaboration was established in 2000 to address the gaps in knowledge base by drawing together the evaluations that have been conducted into particular crime prevention activities. This is achieved by systematic reviews. • Systematic reviews summarise and evaluate the best available research on specific programmes and interventions (Campbell Collaboration, 2018). The results from multiple high-quality studies are synthesised to produce the best possible evidence. Great importance is placed upon the integrity of the process in which systematic reviews are produced from. • The Crime and Justice coordinating group has published 43 systematic reviews in the Campbell Collaboration library as of August 2018. Plain language summaries (PLS) accompany 18 of the 43 reviews. And 37 of the 43 reviews are related to crime prevention interventions. • http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/ A key aspect of any crime problem-solving approach is evaluation. If we do not evaluate then we do not know if our interventions worked. Evaluation is generally a complex activity. These complexities will not be considered here. Rather, two different clearinghouses will be introduced. These clearinghouses draw on evaluations of different types of crime prevention and provide summaries about their effectiveness. The Campbell Collaboration is one of these clearinghouses. 26 EMMIE Effect Impact on crime Whether the evidence suggests the intervention led to an increase, decrease or had no impact on crime. Mechanism How it works What is it about the intervention that could explain its effects? Moderators Where it works In what circumstances and contexts is the intervention likely to work/not work? Implementation How to do it What conditions should be considered when implementing an intervention locally? Economic Cost How much it costs What direct or indirect costs are associated with the intervention and is there evidence of cost benefits? Source: http://whatworks.college.police.uk/toolkit/About-the-Crime-Reduction-Toolkit/Pages/About.aspx Academics at the University College London have developed the rating and ranking system known as EMMIE. EMMIE seeks to go beyond what a Campbell Collaboration achieves. By providing some insight into the way an intervention works, the moderating variables, and how much it costs, EMMIE is more helpful in shaping decisions of policymakers than just merely outlining whether it works or not. 28 Summary - http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/14164 • What are the four models of crime prevention? ► ► ► ► • How might criminal justice agencies prevent crime and why might these approaches have limited crime prevention benefits? • What are the three elements of the crime triangle? ► ► ► • What changes in our ‘routine activities’ increased opportunities for crime in the latter part of last century? • What is informal social control and what are some examples? • What are the challenges of implementing social crime prevention? • What are some early intervention programs? This concludes this Module. This final exercise gets students to reflect on the key elements of the Module. A video can be downloaded and played before posing these questions to the students. The questions can be asked even if the video cannot be shown. 29 Summary • What are the four models of crime prevention? ► Developmental ► Social (or community) ► Situational ► Criminal justice / law enforcement • How might criminal justice agencies prevent crime and why might these approaches have limited crime prevention benefits? Incapacitation, deterrence, rehabilitation. Always after an offence (or offences) has been committed. • What are the three elements of the crime triangle? ► Motivated offender ► Victim or target ► Absence of capable guardianship • What changes in our ‘routine activities’ increased opportunities for crime in the latter part of last century? Suburbanisation, dual income families, increased wealth, weight of consumer items,,, … • What is informal social control and what are some examples? Action taken by residents in response to antisocial behaviour. Graffiti removal and stopping antisocial behaviour. • What are the challenges of implementing social crime prevention? Free-rider effect; imposed; some people/communities will be left out. • What are some early intervention programs? Nurse visitation and child enrichment programs. 30