Critical reflections on leadership – Narratives and leadership, Study notes of Business Management and Analysis

Download Critical reflections on leadership – Narratives and leadership and more Study notes Business Management and Analysis in PDF only on Docsity! Business Studies Notes 3 rd. Year Undergraduate / Graduate Level SUBJECT: Critical reflections on leadership – Narratives and leadership Authors: (Original Study Notes and Lecture Notes prepared by Mr. K.P. Saluja (M.B.A. from Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad), supported by Mr. K. K. Prasad (M.B.A from IGNOU Delhi) These notes are intended to be used by undergraduate students, completing Year 3 Business Degree Courses. These notes will help undergraduates and graduates complete case studies, coursework assignments and pass exams in Business Studies and Economics. TABLE OF CONTENTS (1) Leadership –definition (2) Theories of leadership (3) Behavioural and style theories (4) Situational and contingency theories (5) Functional theory (6) Integrated psychological theory (7) Transactional and transformational theories (8) Emergence of leadership (9) Styles of leadership (10)Leadership differences affected by gender Leadership -definition Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, incorporates the capacity of an individual, group or association to "lead” impact or guide others, groups, or whole associations. "Initiative" frequently gets seen as a challenged term. Expert writing discusses different perspectives on the idea, in some cases differentiating Eastern and Western ways to deal with authority, and furthermore (inside the West) North American versus European methodologies. élite gathering of restrained units to go about as the vanguard of a communist transformation, bringing into reality the fascism of the working class. Other verifiable perspectives on authority have tended to the appearing contrasts among mainstream and strict initiative. The regulations of Caesaropapism have repeated and had their doubters north of a few centuries. Christian reasoning on administration has frequently underlined stewardship of supernaturally given assets — human and material — and their sending as per a Heavenly arrangement. Analyse worker leadership. For a more broad view on administration in legislative issues, look at the idea of the statesperson. Theories of leadership Early Western history The quest for the qualities or characteristics of pioneers has gone on for a really long time. Philosophical compositions from Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have investigated the inquiry "What characteristics recognize a person as a pioneer?" Hidden this search was the early acknowledgment of the significance of authority and the presumption that initiative is established in the qualities that specific people have. This thought that authority depends on individual credits is known as the "trait theory of leadership". Various works in the nineteenth hundred years - when the conventional power of rulers, masters and priests had started to melt away - investigated the characteristic hypothesis finally: note particularly the compositions of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton, whose works have provoked many years of examination. In Legends and Legend Love (1841), Carlyle distinguished the abilities, abilities, and actual qualities of men who rose to drive. Galton's Genetic Virtuoso (1869) analysed authority characteristics in the groups of influential men. In the wake of showing that the quantities of famous family members dropped off when his center moved from first-degree to second- degree family members, Galton presumed that authority was acquired. As such, pioneers were conceived, not created. Both of these striking works loaned extraordinary beginning help for the idea that initiative is established in qualities of a leader. Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) accepted that public-lively administration could be sustained by recognizing youngsters with "moral power of character and impulses to lead", and teaching them in settings (like the university climate of the College of Oxford) which further grew such qualities. Worldwide organizations of such pioneers could assist with advancing global comprehension and help "render war inconceivable". This vision of administration underlay the making of the Rhodes Grants, which have assisted with forming thoughts of authority since their creation in 1903. Rise of alternative theories In the last part of the 1940s and mid-1950s, a progression of subjective surveys of these examinations (e.g., Bird, 1940; Stogdill, 1948; Mann, 1959) provoked scientists to take a radically unique perspective on the main thrusts behind authority. In exploring the surviving writing, Stogdill and Mann found that while certain characteristics were normal across various examinations, the general proof recommended that individuals who are pioneers in a single circumstance may not really be pioneers in different circumstances. In this way, administration was not generally described as a getting through individual characteristic, as situational approaches (see elective authority hypotheses underneath) set that people can be viable in specific circumstances, yet not others. The concentrate then, at that point, moved away from qualities of pioneers to an examination of the pioneer ways of behaving that were compelling. This approach ruled a large part of the initiative hypothesis and examination for the following couple of many years. Re-emergence of trait theory New strategies and estimations were created after these persuasive surveys that would at last restore quality hypothesis as a feasible way to deal with the investigation of initiative. For instance, upgrades in specialists' utilization of the cooperative examination plan system permitted scientists to see that people would be able and do arise as pioneers across various circumstances and undertakings. Furthermore, during the 1980s factual advances permitted specialists to lead meta-examinations, in which they could quantitatively break down and sum up the discoveries from a wide exhibit of studies. This approach permitted characteristic scholars to make an exhaustive image of past initiative examination as opposed to depend on the subjective surveys of the past. Outfitted with new strategies, administration specialists uncovered the accompanying: Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as: Intelligence Adjustment Extraversion Conscientiousness Openness to experience General self-efficacy While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its re- emergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks. Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still: Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as the "Big Five" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills. Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes. B. F. Skinner is the dad of surface level change in conduct and fostered the idea of uplifting feedback. Encouraging feedback happens when a positive upgrade is introduced in light of a way of behaving, improving the probability of that conducts from now on. Coming up next is an illustration of how encouraging feedback can be utilized in a business setting. Expect acclaim is a positive reinforce for a specific representative. This representative doesn't appear for work on time consistently. The supervisor chooses to applaud the representative for arriving as expected consistently the representative really appears for work on time. Thus, the representative comes to deal with time all the more frequently in light of the fact that the worker likes to be adulated. In this model, acclaim (the boost) is a positive reinforce for this representative on the grounds that the representative shows up working on time (the way of behaving) all the more regularly subsequent to being lauded for appearing for work on time. Encouraging feedback instituted by Skinner empowers a way of behaving to be rehashed in a positive way, and then again a negative reinforce is rehashed in a manner that isn't quite as conceivable as the positive. The utilization of encouraging feedback is a fruitful and developing procedure utilized by pioneers to persuade and achieve wanted ways of behaving from subordinates. Associations like Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Chime, and Emery Airship cargo have all pre-owned support to increment efficiency. Experimental exploration covering the most recent 20 years proposes that support hypothesis has a 17 percent increment in execution. Moreover, numerous support methods, for example, the utilization of recognition are reasonable, giving better execution to bring down costs. Situational and contingency theories Situational hypothesis likewise showed up as a response to the quality hypothesis of initiative. Social researchers contended that set of experiences was more than the consequence of mediation of incredible men as Carlyle recommended. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) said that the times produce the individual and not the alternate way around. This hypothesis expects that various circumstances call for various qualities; as per this gathering of speculations, no single ideal psychographic profile of a pioneer exists. As per the hypothesis, "what an individual really does while going about as a pioneer is by and large ward upon qualities of the circumstance in which he works. A few scholars began to integrate the quality and situational approaches. Expanding upon the examination of Lewin et al., scholastics started to standardize the enlightening models of authority environments, characterizing three administration styles and distinguishing which circumstances each style works better in. The dictator initiative style, for instance, is supported in times of emergency yet neglects to win the "hearts and psyches" of devotees in everyday administration; the popularity based authority style is more sufficient in circumstances that require agreement building; at last, the free enterprise authority style is valued for the level of opportunity it gives, however as the pioneers don't "assume responsibility", they can be seen as a disappointment in extended or prickly hierarchical problems. Thus, scholars characterized the style of administration as contingent to the circumstance, which is some of the time named possibility hypothesis. Three possibility authority speculations show up additional noticeably lately: Fiedler possibility model, Vroom-Yetton choice model, and the way objective hypothesis. The Fiedler possibility model puts together the pioneer's adequacy with respect to what Fred Fiedler called situational possibility. These outcomes from the collaboration of authority style and situational idealness (later called situational control). The hypothesis characterized two sorts of pioneer: the individuals who will generally achieve the errand by growing great associations with the gathering (relationship-situated), and the people who have as their superb concern completing the actual undertaking (task-arranged). As indicated by Fiedler, there is no optimal pioneer. Both errands arranged and relationship- situated pioneers can be successful in the event that their authority direction fits what is going on. At the point when there is a decent pioneer part connection, a profoundly organized undertaking, and high pioneer position power, the circumstance is viewed as a "good circumstance". Fiedler found that task-arranged pioneers are more viable in very great or horrible circumstances, though relationship-situated pioneers perform best in circumstances with transitional positivity. Victor Vroom, as a team with Phillip Yetton (1973) and later with Arthur Jago (1988), fostered a scientific classification for portraying administration circumstances, which was utilized in a regularizing choice model where administration styles were associated with situational factors, characterizing which approach was more reasonable to which circumstance. This approach was novel since it upheld the possibility that a similar supervisor could depend on various collective choice making approaches relying upon the traits of every circumstance. This model was subsequently alluded to as situational possibility hypothesis. The way objective hypothesis of authority was created by Robert House (1971) and depended on the anticipation hypothesis of Victor Vroom. As per House, the quintessence of the hypothesis is "the meta suggestion that pioneers, to be compelling, participate in ways of behaving that supplement subordinates' surroundings and capacities in a way that makes up for lacks and is instrumental to subordinate fulfilment and individual and work unit performance”. The hypothesis recognizes four pioneer ways of behaving, accomplishment situated, mandate, participative, and steady that are contingent to the climate variables and supporter qualities. Rather than the Fiedler possibility model, the way objective model expresses that the four authority ways of behaving are liquid, and that pioneers can embrace any of the four relying upon what the circumstance requests. The way objective model can be grouped both as a possibility hypothesis, as it relies upon the conditions, and as a value-based initiative hypothesis, as the hypothesis stresses the correspondence conduct between the pioneer and the followers Functional theory Practical initiative hypothesis (Hackman and Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962; Adair, 1988; Kouzes and Posner, 1995) is an especially helpful hypothesis for addressing explicit pioneer ways of behaving expected to add to hierarchical or • The first two – public and private leadership – are "outer" or behavioural levels. These are the behaviours that address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; (4) individual selection and motivation. Public leadership focuses on the 34 behaviours involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. Private leadership covers the 14 behaviours needed to influence individuals one to one. • The third – personal leadership – is an "inner" level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, knowhow and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical knowhow and skill (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people – which is the basis of servant leadership (3) Psychological self-mastery – the foundation for authentic leadership. Scouller contended that discipline is the way to developing one's administration presence, building entrusting associations with supporters and dissolving one's restricting convictions and propensities, in this way empowering social adaptability as conditions change, while remaining associated with one's guiding principle (that is, while staying true). To help pioneers' turn of events, he presented another model of the human mind and framed the standards and strategies of discipline, which incorporate the act of care reflection. Transactional and transformational theories Bernard Bass and partners fostered the possibility of two unique kinds of initiative, conditional that includes trade of work for remunerations and ground breaking which depends on worry for representatives, scholarly feeling, and giving a gathering vision. The value-based pioneer (Consumes, 1978) is enabled play out specific undertakings and reward or rebuff for the group's exhibition. It offers the chance to the supervisor to lead the gathering and the gathering consents to take cues from him to achieve a foreordained objective in return for something different. Power is given to the pioneer to assess, right, and train subordinates when efficiency now has nothing to do with the ideal level, and award adequacy when expected result is reached. Leader–member exchange theory Pioneer part trade (LMX) hypothesis tends to a particular part of the initiative interaction, which developed from a prior hypothesis called the upward dyad linkage (VDL) model. Both of these models center on the communication among pioneers and individual devotees. Like the value-based approach, this collaboration is seen as a fair trade by which the pioneer gives specific advantages like undertaking direction, exhortation, support, or potentially huge prizes and the devotees respond by giving the pioneer regard, participation, obligation to the errand and great execution. In any case, LMX perceives that pioneers and individual supporters will differ in the kind of trade that creates between them. LMX speculates that the kind of trades between the pioneer and explicit adherents can prompt the production of in-gatherings and out- gatherings. In-bunch individuals are said to have excellent trades with the pioneer, while out-bunch individuals have bad quality trades with the pioneer. In-group members In-group members are seen by the pioneer as being more capable, skilful, and ready to take on obligation than different supporters. The pioneer starts to depend on these people to assist with particularly testing assignments. Assuming that the devotee answers well, the pioneer rewards him/her with additional training, ideal work tasks, and formative encounters. On the off chance that the adherent shows high responsibility and exertion followed by extra rewards, the two players foster shared trust, impact, and backing of each other. Research shows the in-bunch individuals for the most part get better execution assessments from the pioneer, higher fulfilment, and quicker advancements than out-bunch individuals. In-bunch individuals are likewise prone to construct more grounded bonds with their chiefs by having similar social foundations and interests. Out-group members Out-group members frequently get not so much time but rather more far off trades than their in-bunch partners. With out-group members, pioneers anticipate something like satisfactory work execution, great participation, sensible regard, and adherence to the expected set of responsibilities in return for a fair compensation and standard advantages. The pioneer invests less energy with out-bunch individuals, they have less formative encounters, and the pioneer will in general accentuate his/her proper position to acquire consistence to pioneer demands. Research shows that out-bunch individuals are less happy with their work and association, get lower execution assessments from the pioneer, consider their chief to be less fair, and are bound to document complaints or leave the association. Emotions Initiative can be seen as an especially feeling loaded process, with feelings laced with the social impact process. In an association, the pioneer's state of mind sometimes affects his/her gathering. These impacts can be portrayed in three levels 1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion. Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers. 2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and Leadership emergence is the possibility that individuals brought into the world with explicit attributes become pioneers, and those without these qualities don't become pioneers. Individuals like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela all offer qualities that a typical individual doesn't. This incorporates individuals who decide to partake in positions of authority, rather than the people who don't. Research demonstrates that up to 30% of pioneer rise has a hereditary premise. There is no flow research demonstrating that there is an "initiative quality", rather we acquire specific characteristics that could impact our choice to look for authority. Both episodic and exact proof helps a steady connection between unambiguous characteristics and initiative way of behaving. Utilizing an enormous worldwide example specialists observed that there are three factors that inspire pioneers; full of feeling character (pleasure in driving), non-calculative (driving procures support), and social-regulating (awareness of certain expectations). Assertiveness The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear; individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders. Authenticity Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders. See authentic leadership. Big Five personality factors Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more (order in strength of relationship with leadership emergence): extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups. However, introversion – extroversion appears to be the most influential quality in leadership emergence, specifically leaders tend to be high in extroversion. Introversion - extroversion is also the quality that can be judged most easily of the Big Five Traits. Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence. Birth order Those born first in their families and only children are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-bourns are thought to be rebellious and creative. Character strengths Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork. Dominance Individuals with dominant personalities – they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way – are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations. Emotional intelligence Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively. Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders. Intelligence Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders. Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30. However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed intelligence prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests and values Self-efficacy for leadership An individual’s confidence in their capacity to lead is related with an expanded readiness to acknowledge an influential position and make progress in its interest. There are no set circumstances for this trademark to become rising. Nonetheless, it should be supported by a singular's conviction that they can learn and further develop it with time. People mostly assess their own capacities by noticing others; working with a prevalent that is viewed as a powerful pioneer might assist the person with fostering a conviction that the individual in question can act likewise. Self-monitoring High self-screens are bound to arise as the head of a gathering than are low self-screens, since they are more worried about status-upgrade and are bound to adjust their activities to fit the requests of the circumstance Social motivation Autocratic or authoritarian Under the dictatorial administration style, all dynamic powers are unified in the pioneer, likewise with tyrants. Absolutist pioneers ask or engage no ideas or drives from subordinates. The imperious administration has been effective as it gives solid inspiration to the chief. It allows fast direction, as only one individual chooses for the entire gathering and keeps every choice to him/herself until he/she feels it should be imparted to the remainder of the gathering. Participative or democratic The popularity based authority style comprises of the pioneer imparting the critical thinking skills to bunch individuals by advancing the interests of the gathering individuals and by rehearsing social correspondence. This has additionally been called shared initiative. Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership In free enterprise or free-rein administration, direction is given to the subordinates. This style of authority is known as "free enterprise" and that implies no impedance in the undertakings of others. (The expression free enterprise is French and in a real sense signifies "let them do"). Subordinates are enabled the total right to settle on choices to lay out objectives and take care of the issues or obstacles. The supporters are given a serious level of freedom and opportunity to plan their own targets and ways of accomplishing them. Task-oriented and relationship-oriented In laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, direction is given to the subordinates. This style of authority is known as "free enterprise" and that implies no impedance in the undertakings of others. (The expression free enterprise is French and in a real sense signifies "let them do"). Subordinates are empowered the total right to settle on choices to lay out objectives and take care of the issues or obstacles. The supporters are given a serious level of autonomy and opportunity to plan their own targets and ways of accomplishing them. Task-oriented authority is a style wherein the pioneer is centered on the undertakings that should be acted to meet a specific creation objective. Task- situated pioneers are for the most part more worried about delivering a bit by bit answer for given issue or objective, rigorously ensuring these cut off times are met, results and arriving at target results. Relationship-oriented authority is a differentiating style in which the pioneer is more centered on the connections among the gathering and is for the most part more worried about the general prosperity and fulfilment of gathering individuals. Relationship-oriented pioneers accentuate correspondence inside the gathering, show trust and trust in bunch individuals, and show appreciation for work done. Task-oriented leaders are typically less concerned with the idea of catering to group members, and more concerned with acquiring a certain solution to meet a production goal. For this reason, they typically are able to make sure that deadlines are met, yet their group members' well-being may suffer. These leaders have absolute focus on the goal and the tasks cut out for each member. Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer. Paternalism Paternalism initiative styles frequently mirror a mentor mentality. The construction of group is coordinated progressively where the pioneer is seen over the devotees. The pioneer likewise gives both expert and individual heading in the existences of the members. There is many times a limit on the decisions that the individuals can browse because of the weighty course given by the pioneer. The term paternalism is from the Latin pater signifying "father". The pioneer is most frequently a male. This administration style is much of the time tracked down in Russia, Africa, and Pacific Asian Societies. Servant leadership With the change into an information society, the idea of worker initiative has become more famous, remarkably through current innovation the executives styles, for example, Lithe. In this style, the initiative is externalized from the pioneer who fills in as a watchman of the technique and a "worker" or specialist co-op to the group they lead. The union and well known bearing of the group is directed by a typical culture, shared objectives and some of the time a particular procedure. This style is unique in relation to the free enterprise in that the pioneer continually pursues arriving at the shared objectives collectively, however without giving unequivocal headings on errands. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Transactional leadership alludes to a trade connection between a pioneer and devotees where the two of them endeavor to meet their own personal matters. There are a few types of conditional administration, the first being contingent prize, in which the pioneer frames how the supporter should be compensated for the work. The second type of conditional authority is the board by-special case, wherein the pioneer screens execution of the devotee and makes a remedial move in the event that principles are not met. At last value-based pioneers might be free enterprise, trying not to make any move whatsoever. Ground breaking initiative alludes to a past quick self-pioneer intrigues capitalizing on romanticized leverage (magnetism), persuasive inspiration, timing for moms to get back to work diminished the chances of poor psychological well-being reports. In non-western societies that generally follow paternalism, absence of information on the advantages of maternity leave influences the help given to the ladies during a significant time in their life. Society and Laws Certain nations that follow paternalism, for example, India, actually take into consideration ladies to be dealt with unreasonably. Issues, for example, youngster marriage and minor disciplines for culprits in violations against ladies profoundly mold society's view on how ladies ought to be dealt with. This can keep ladies from getting a handle on open to talking in private and expert settings. Glass Ceilings and Glass Cliffs Ladies who work in an extremely paternalistic culture or industry (for example the oil or designing industry), frequently manage restrictions in their profession that keeps them from climbing any further. This affiliation is frequently because of the mind-set that main guys convey initiative attributes. The term glass precipice alludes to undesired tasks that are many times given to ladies since they have an expansion in chance of disappointment. These undesired undertakings are given to female workers where they are bound to fizzle and leave the association. References Western, Simon (2013). Leadership: A critical text. London: Sage. 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