Religious Education in Pluralistic Societies: Balancing Religious Literacy and Pluralism, Exams of Religion

Download Religious Education in Pluralistic Societies: Balancing Religious Literacy and Pluralism and more Exams Religion in PDF only on Docsity! 1 CHAPTER 1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH TOPIC AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH 1.1 The Problem In liberal, democratic and multi-faith societies, RE is a controversial school curriculum subject which often creates tension between church (religion) and state (education). Since Zambia’s political independence in 1964, the state through the Ministry of Education has virtually been the sole decider of what kind of Religious Education (RE) is to be taught in public schools. Thus, the state has been responsible for the progressive development of Zambian RE from denominationalism through ecumenism to pluralism. Realising that the country was increasingly multi-faith, the post-independence state concerned itself with the challenge of creating a nation where religion would unite rather than divide. So for almost two decades Zambia had a semi-democratic socio-political system called ‘One Party Participatory Democracy’ under which the educational aspect of RE was emphasised. With the advent, in 1991, of a more democratic government with strong moorings in forms of Christian evangelism, and the declaration of Zambia as a Christian Nation, the ecumenical, pluralistic and educational emphasis in RE have been questioned in favour of a more catechetical, denominational approach. Despite this a very liberal national education policy (document) called Educating Our Future which favours continued pluralistic approaches to RE was adopted in 1996. Increased democracy and pluralism and stronger Christian evangelism have led to a situation where the state’s control of the school RE programme and the programme itself are being questioned and criticised by some Christian churches as well as other religious traditions. At present it appears that there is confusion and misinterpretation of the present policy at grassroots level among RE teachers as well as among religious leaders. These leaders are criticising the RE policy of the Ministry of Education for its lack of religious commitment and many teachers still assume that it is their duty to instill religious commitment in learners. Given the present state of affairs, how adequate do Zambians consider the school RE programme and what would be the best form of RE for the public schools in Zambia? 2 1.2 The Aims of the Thesis The role of religion in public affairs (such as education) in modern/post-modern society differs from country to country. As such, the appropriate (education) policy for one country would not necessarily be appropriate for another. The evaluation of policies and models (of education) should therefore be contextualised and the history of a country considered before a recommendation can be made. The aims of this thesis are therefore, firstly, to study the different models of RE as we find them in different countries, secondly, to study the history of RE in the Zambian context, and thirdly, to test the opinions of a number of selected individuals or leaders and spokespersons of various sectors of Zambian society, before making a recommendation on what form of RE is appropriate for Zambia. 1.3 Theoretical Framework and Methodology The first part of the study will review literature from different parts of the world, including Zambia and describe and evaluate different models of RE in modern/post- modern society. The second part will critically examine the history of RE in Zambia, focusing on the role of the church and state in the development of the subject. This will involve careful study and analysis of relevant literature and documents in libraries at the Ministry of Education and elsewhere. Data will be analysed according to a framework that includes the following polarities: the church versus state, catechesis versus ecumenism, and Christian education versus multi-religious education. Thus, the tension between religion and the State over RE will be highlighted and explained. The last part of the study will be primarily qualitative in focus, employing semi-structured interviews of selected religious leaders, educationalists and officers from non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This will be aimed at gathering and analysing the views, opinions and general understanding of the current liberal educational system and pluralistic RE by these individuals as representatives of their respective constituencies. This part of the thesis will also indicate ways in which school RE in an emerging liberal but predominantly Christian Zambian society can be educationally adequate. 5 knowledge and understanding of all the religious traditions existing in Zambian society should be promoted through the subject. National Education Policy The current national education policy document entitled Educating Our Future (MOE 1996: 29), gives the aim of education in Zambia in the following statement: The overarching aim of school education is to promote the full and well- rounded development of the physical, intellectual, social, affective, moral and spiritual qualities of all pupils so that each can develop into a complete person, for his or her own personal fulfilment and the good of society. It also sets out a number of new goals of education of which the most pertinent to RE are: Producing a learner capable of: (i) being animated by a personally held set of civic, moral and spiritual values; (ii) demonstrating free expression of one’s own ideas [or beliefs] and exercising tolerance for other people’s views; (iii) appreciating Zambia’s ethnic cultures, customs and traditions, and upholding national pride … peace, freedom and independence; (iv) developing an analytical, innovative, creative and constructive mind (MOE 1996: 5). The document further advises that: Zambia is a liberal democratic society. Hence, it is the values of liberal democracy that must guide the formulation of educational policies and their implementation. The core values are rational and moral autonomy, equality, fairness and liberty (Ibid: 1). As may be seen, all school curriculum subjects should contribute to the realisation of the stated (new) goals of education and the achievement of the main aim(s) of the education system. Therefore, the other criteria of educational adequacy for Zambian RE are that it should be contextual rather than general, broadly based as opposed to narrowly based, democratic and open as opposed to authoritarian, and critical rather than just appreciative (Hull 1984; Grimmitt 1987: 39; Mujdrica 1995: 18-19; Simuchimba 1997: 16). 6 At the moment the official aim of RE is stated in the following rather unclear and less educational terms: The main aim of Spiritual and Moral Education is to enable pupils to appreciate spiritual, moral and religious values and behaviour based on them. This appreciation is drawn from the four main religious traditions in Zambia (namely: Christianity, Hinduism, Indigenous Zambian Beliefs and Islam) (MOE 1983:3). 1.4 Clarification of Key Concepts Some concepts used in this thesis are problematic as they can be used differently and interchangeably by different people. These include religious education (RE), religious instruction (RI), moral education (ME), catechesis and church. I will therefore briefly discuss how they have been used and then explain how they will be used in this study. In the past when the church controlled education, RE referred to a programme of instruction aimed at providing information about Christianity with a view to promoting adherence to its beliefs and values. Catechesis, referred to the denominational education in the Christian faith with a view to achieving conversion and commitment to it. However, as society developed and became more pluralistic, the State took control of public education and this meant that RE no longer involved instruction in Christian beliefs only (RI) or education in the beliefs and traditions of a specific Christian denomination (catechesis). It now also provided information regarding different religious traditions in society. This has over the years led to two main ways in which the concept of RE is understood: as essentially a religious activity with religious aims in line with the traditional approach to education, and secondly, as essentially an educational activity with educational aims (in line with a liberal approach). As such, the concepts RE, RI and catechesis have been and are often used interchangeably. To some people, especially the religiously committed, RE and RI are one and the same subject dealing with teaching and learning of the beliefs and values of their religion. In some church schools, both catechesis and RE are seen as serving the 7 religious purposes of Christian denominational education, conversion and promotion of religious commitment. In some countries, such as the USA and France, where RE is excluded from public schools, catechetical or denominational education is often referred to as RE. RE is also widely seen as church education or education in Christianity as a world religion, and includes its history, key beliefs, values and practices. Furthermore, in the past it was believed that religion entailed morality and teaching people Christianity included giving them the appropriate moral training or education. However, as society became religiously and culturally plural, ME based on the moral values of one particular religion, in this case Christianity, became unacceptable. This has led to attempts in some countries to design ME programmes based purely on natural reason and human experience. As a result of this polarisation, the concepts of RE and ME continue to be used interchangeably. It is still assumed by many religiously committed people and those deeply concerned with moral value, that ME is a product of RE and that pupils become morally upright by obeying the moral laws or commands of religion. Due to this close connection between RE and ME, many people see no difference between the two concepts and use them interchangeably. Moreover, if the interchangeable way in which RE, RI and catechesis are used is understood, it becomes clear how ME and RI or catechesis are also similarly used. Instruction in the beliefs of a particular religion (Christianity) and denominational education are seen as resulting not only in conversion and commitment to the beliefs of the religion concerned, but also to its moral teachings. Besides being used interchangeably with RI, ME and catechesis, educational RE is variously interpreted as being mainly a vehicle for the transmission of culture, an experiential, child-centred activity, the imparting of knowledge of religion as a form of human understanding, or the imparting of certain skills, techniques and attitudes (Hull 1984: 285). As such it is possible for RE in a pluralistic society to include secular life stances or naturalistic faiths such as Humanism and Atheistic Existentialism in order to compare them with religious traditions, show that there are alternatives to religious life 10 Pentecostal churches and the Zambia Episcopal Conference, for Roman Catholics. To date, these umbrella organisations represent and speak for the Christian community in Zambia on all public matters, including education. 1.5 Layout of the Thesis This thesis is divided into a total of eight chapters. Apart from the foregoing chapter (one), chapter two surveys Zambian and other literature relevant to this study. Chapter three examines various models of RE in terms of their aims, conceptual framework, educational process strengths and weaknesses in modern/post-modern society; it also analyses three different countries’ national policies on religion and education as a way of laying the theoretical foundation for the discussion of Zambian RE. Chapters four, five and six discuss RE during the colonial, post-colonial and current Third Republic periods of the country’s history, respectively. The roles of church and state in the development of the subject are highlighted and critically examined in the three chapters. Chapter seven critically discusses Zambians’ views and opinions on the current school RE programme in general and the adequacy of the subject syllabuses in particular, while the last chapter (eight) concludes the thesis and gives some recommendations on the way forward for school RE in Zambia. In this opening chapter, I have defined the research topic and explained the methodological approaches to be used to study it. I have stated the specific problem, the aims of the study or thesis, the methodology to be used to gather data, the criteria for data analysis and evaluation, and the key terms used in the study as well as what they mean. In the next chapter, I survey relevant Zambian and foreign literature. 11 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY In order to situate this study more broadly and make the survey meaningful and systematic, I will not only examine literature on Zambia, but other African countries, Britain and non-African Commonwealth countries, and finally the United States of America. Zambian studies are important because they provide the specific background on which this study will be based. Similarly, African studies are important because apart from providing additional general background to this study, they will be a good source of comparative material on the development of RE within the African continent. British and other Commonwealth studies are relevant to my study because, like many former British colonies (i.e., Commonwealth countries), Zambia adopted the British system of managing public affairs, including education at Independence. Thus the development of her education system, including RE have been greatly influenced by British educational philosophies and ideas. As for American studies, their relevance to this study lies in the fact that the USA is a pluralistic and multi-faith society like Zambia. So some of the issues concerning RE in that country are relevant to the Zambian situation. In order to begin laying the necessary theoretical foundation for the thesis, the literature survey will not only be critical, but also fairly descriptive. I will also take the studies chronologically so that the chapter can reflect the general historical and progressive development of ideas on the relationship between religion and education (through RE) both in Zambia and outside. 2.1 Zambian Studies Most of the existing Zambian studies are historical surveys of the development of RE in the country. They describe how the subject has evolved from being catechetical, denominational and confessional during the colonial era to being educational and pluralistic during the post-independence period. A few others discuss the state of RE since Independence and highlight the need for further educational development of the subject in line with the changes taking place in Zambian society. As such they serve as an 12 important background to this current study, which, among other things, aims at taking scholarship in Zambian RE a step further. The first relevant study for our purpose is that of Adrian B. Smith (1982), who describes the changes in organisation, content and teachers’ attitudes that took place in Zambian primary school RE as a result of the change from a denominational approach to an ecumenical, life-themes approach in 1972. Educational and ecumenical effects of these changes are also discussed. The most important of these changes and effects were that RE became integrated into the total curriculum at both primary school and primary teacher education levels. Secondly, since the subject was now ecumenically aimed at instilling an attitude to life based on Gospel values, the new (common) RE syllabus was based on the life experience of the child. Thirdly, (RE) teachers in both Church and State schools were challenged to realise that they were now supposed to stand in class as professional school teachers rather than representatives of their churches/denominations. Fourthly, and lastly, the approval of a common syllabus by the churches/denominations indicated that RE as a school subject could promote the cause of ecumenism. This small study is important because it describes the first changes or attempts to move Zambian RE from the confessional, denominational stage towards the educational stage. It therefore provides part of the background on which my study will build. In 1985, Rachael M. Masterton reviewed the preparation and production of one of the two senior secondary or high school RE syllabuses in Zambia (i.e. syllabus 2046). The successful production of the primary school syllabus (above) led to the preparation and acceptance of a joint junior secondary school RE syllabus in 1973 and later to the preparation of two alternative syllabuses (2044 and 2046) for senior secondary school. Syllabus 2046’s content and approach which is largely biblical is discussed in detail. Evangelical Christian reasons/arguments for retaining the old Cambridge Bible Knowledge syllabuses after the 1977 Educational Reforms are given. However, the Ministry of Education’s policy of ‘Zambianising’ or contextualising education meant that 15 This study by Henze provides part of the historical background on which the current study will build. In 1995, John J. Mujdrica conducted an evaluation of the three Zambian secondary school RE syllabuses (the junior secondary, 2044 and 2046), for his M Ed dissertation at Birmingham University. In order to successfully evaluate the syllabuses, he dealt with some theoretical aspects of religion, education and evaluation. He also compiled a list of the characteristics of modern RE, which were used as criteria for the evaluation. The main findings of the study were that the quality of RE in the syllabuses was mediocre. The syllabuses presented religion in very idealistic terms, encouraging an appreciation and respect for religion rather than being critical. They were also one sided with the junior and 2044 using the life themes approach exclusively and 2046 using the systems (or biblical) approach only. However, the strength of the syllabuses was in their coverage of the Zambian society in general. In order to overcome the weaknesses above, the evaluator recommended that since the junior secondary syllabus was not as confessional and denominational as 2044 and 2046, it should be built upon and extended to the senior secondary school level. The new senior secondary syllabus should be more developmental, balanced and critical. It should use both the systems and life themes approaches, be 33% biblical, 33% traditional, 16.5% Muslim and 16.5 Hindu. The syllabus should also be both action-oriented like 2044 and ‘Jesus oriented’ like 2046. Although Mujdrica’s evaluation study was professionally done, it lacked the consultative aspect which could bring out the actual views and opinions of Zambians on the syllabuses. This is exactly what this study intends to achieve before making conclusions and recommendations on the way forward. Mujdrica’s evaluation study was followed, in 1997, by Melvin Simuchimba’s largely theoretical study on the need for openness, commitment, and truth-claims in the theory and practice of RE in modern society. He argued that despite some theoretical and 16 practical problems or controversies surrounding the concepts of critical openness, commitment (religious or secular) and truth-claims (by the religions) in the practice of RE today, they remain extremely important. Thus, the rational skills of thinking, judging, evaluating and choosing which are part of openness help to produce a learner/person who is open-minded and responsibly autonomous. Similarly, the religious (or even secular) commitment of a professional RE teacher is likely to help create a more practical and open or honest atmosphere for RE teaching and learning. Furthermore, although the absolutist or exclusivist approach to religious truth-claims is unacceptable in modern pluralistic RE, the truth-claims of the various religions can still be taken seriously by treating the materials with integrity and sensitivity. In short, the author showed that the aims of modern secular education have implications for the aims of RE. This work is generally in line with what the current study is likely to establish. It is likely to show clearly that the secular constitutional values and educational policy guidelines will determine what kind of RE Zambia should have. In an article entitled ‘Religious Education in Zambia: syllabuses, approaches and contentious issues’, Melvin Simuchimba (2000), further dealt with theoretical, but more direct issues affecting Zambian RE. He first discussed the differences between religion and education with reference to their interrelationship in RE. He then described and analysed Zambian RE syllabuses and their official Ministry of Education approved approaches before highlighting some contentious issues in the practice of the subject (RE) in present-day democratic and multi-faith Zambia. In line with the aim statement of Spiritual and Moral Education (RE), the three syllabuses (Basic Education, Syllabus 2044 and Syllabus 2046) are pluralistic in approach, though not satisfactorily so. Similarly, since 1991 three interlinked issues have become contentious and have negatively affected the practice of Zambian RE. They include the declaration of the country as a Christian nation by government, the growing practice of 17 starting RE lessons with a Christian prayer or Bible reading followed by a short sermon by teachers, and resistance to the inclusion and neglect of Zambian Traditional Religion(s) in the RE syllabuses by some Christian teachers. The author’s conclusion was that in modern Zambia, religion and education need each other, but their relationship (through RE) needs to be governed by the provisions of the country’s democratic constitution and the national education policy document, if religious harmony and national unity are to be maintained. As Zambia bade farewell to the 1990s and entered the new millennium, John Mudalitsa (2000), argued that RE in Zambia was both in a state of crisis and had a momentous opportunity for further development. Some Christian churches and individual RE teachers wanted to use RE to impose their own understanding of Christianity on all pupils and thus win more converts. Others, however, wanted the subject to be professionally taught and to continue developing along pluralistic lines. The former were encouraged by the 1991 declaration of Zambia as a Christian nation, while the latter were encouraged by the liberal and democratic provisions of the national educational policy document, Educating Our Future, published and adopted in 1996. The author’s conclusion and recommendation were that for RE (in Zambia) to bring about individual and social transformation, the best of religion and the best of education should be fused together into a dynamic whole. This brief work raises very important issues affecting RE in Zambia, but does not discuss them in good detail. So this study will compliment it by critically discussing the issues in detail. The current study will also go beyond Mudalitsa’s conclusion by gathering Zambians’ views towards current syllabuses and assessing them against the constitutional and policy requirements for the subject. In 2001, Brendan P. Carmody retraced the history of the development of RE in Zambia from when it was entirely confessional to the present time when it is largely educational. 20 relevant to the ‘dreams’ and ‘realities’ of the young Zambians. His conclusion was that the kind of education that takes place in our schools/classrooms is generally not thought- provoking, liberating, and development-oriented. In his evaluation, the author referred to Educating Our Future, the national education policy, which criticises over-emphasis on factual information in the education system and recommends positive qualities and critical life skills, which can enhance individual and community development. According to Mudalitsa, the Zambian RE syllabuses were outdated because they were products of the 1977 Educational Reforms. On the positive side, these reforms helped to make RE Zambian, while on the negative side, they left the country with an un- educational aim of RE, i.e. promoting uncritical appreciation of religious and Humanist- Socialist beliefs and values. He concluded that Zambian RE syllabuses had the following strengths and weaknesses: (a) They promote the pupil’s knowledge of religion and morality (based on the Bible), but not his/her rational autonomy and integral development. (b) They foster the pupil’s concern for traditional culture and the common good but not his/her ability to criticise and change the ills of society. (c) They enhance the pupil’s naïve appreciation of anything religious but not his/her ability to discern between liberating and enslaving aspects of religion. He argues that Zambian RE should aim at enabling pupils to discern religious beliefs and practices so that they may use religion constructively for their own growth and development of society. Thus instead of being appreciative of the status quo and regurgitative, the subject should be in line with education for transformation, which is critical. The author concludes his study by proposing and discussing formulae for improvement which emphasise the teacher’s role as a model and the need for or importance of student- teachers’ (and pupils’) reflection on experience and action to bring about change. This study is important and relevant to my study for the following three reasons. Firstly, the critical (life) skills and positive qualities or attitudes which the national education 21 policy recommends for Zambia and which the author alludes to, are cross-curricular and affect RE like all school subject areas. As such this study will seek to propose a model of Zambian RE that does not only satisfy the policy guidelines, but also meets the educational needs of young Zambians. Secondly, I agree with the author on the need to restate the aim of Zambian RE so that it can reflect the new educational goals and aspirations explained in Educating Our Future. So my study will also strongly recommend such change and give one or two examples of proposed aims. Thirdly, the author’s analysis and criticism of the current Zambian RE syllabuses is in line with the criticism that this study will offer in its analysis and recommendations for improvement. However, the author’s strong emphasis on the transformative aspect of ‘RE with a Difference’ seems to be outside the impartial, secular and neutralistic aims, principles and approaches of educational RE which a pluralistic and democratic country like Zambia should have. His proposed formula for the improvement of Zambian education, including RE also seems to be a combination of Christian (or Catholic) social teaching and liberal educational philosophy and is not based on the philosophy of RE per se. Additionally, if the author’s suggestion that the (RE) teacher should be a model of what he or she teaches means that they should be religiously committed, then that is unacceptable because this study will argue that the only qualification for teaching RE in a pluralistic country like Zambia is professional training and one’s willingness, respect and ability to see religion as important in people’s lives. In an attempt to interpret the provisions of the national education policy provisions on RE, Joe Henze (2003) published a booklet entitled, ‘Interfacing: Religious Education in dialogue with Educating Our Future’, in which he explains how some of the major policy changes in the education system affect RE. These changes include an emphasis on skills rather than rote memorization of texts or facts, using knowledge rather than just acquiring it, critical and creative thinking rather than passive acceptance of knowledge on the part of the learner. The educational policy document also calls for change from knowledge to self-knowledge, discipline to self-discipline and ideals to self-ideals. These changes mean that RE has to undergo radical changes in its content, approaches and methodology. 22 Thus the subject needs to become more pluralistic and inclusive in content, more process- based, explorative, experiential and open-ended in approach, and learner-centred, participatory and activity-based in methodology. In short, Educating Our Future challenges RE in Zambia to mature and become fully educational. This small study is relevant and important because it tries to explain the provisions of Educating Our Future, the national education policy document, on RE. Naturally, these provisions and some of the author’s interpretations will form an important basis of my study’s recommendations on the way forward for Zambian RE. In 2004, Brendan P. Carmody briefly discussed the Ministry of Education’s introduction of new Basic Education syllabuses in which RE has been integrated into a learning area called ‘Social and Development Studies.’ He first points out that from the perspective of the church, one of the great hallmarks in the history of education in Zambia has been the inclusion of RE into the school curriculum. He then explains two challenges facing the subject today. Due to division among religious educators over the high school syllabuses (2044 and 2046) and the country becoming more pluralistic, there are moves to develop a single high school syllabus that is more pluralistic or less Christian in content. At Basic Education level, RE has, to some extent, been absorbed into the new Social and Development Studies syllabus. The author then criticises the mainline churches for not speaking out on these ‘negative happenings’ in the area of RE. He argues that the integration of RE with other subjects into the curriculum should not lead to the subject becoming part of Social Studies. Instead, RE should remain distinct (as in the past) so that it helps learners to have a coherent, structured understanding of religion and religious matters. The author concludes his study by reiterating the need for the church or Christian bodies such as the Catholic Bishops Conference to critically and constructively participate in the Ministry of Education curriculum reform discussions, especially in as far as they concern RE. 25 in this kind of situation. The author then offers four distinct options of RE which pluralist African societies can choose from, depending on the degree of pluralism in each society. The first option would be to choose one of the existing religious faiths that is dominant enough, to render all the others ignorable, and teach it alone, as the true faith. Under this option, you simply induct the pupils into and nurture them in the chosen ‘national faith.’ This type and approach to the subject is called Confessional RE. The second option would be to strike a balance or compromise among existing religious traditions that make almost equal claims on the society, by choosing what is common among them and teaching it to all pupils in schools. This option or choice requires an ecumenical spirit or mutual love, respect and maturity on the part of participating religions and their adherents if it is to succeed. This type and approach to teaching religion in schools is called ‘Agreed’ or ‘Joint RE.’ The third option would entail dividing pupils in a class according to their religious or faith affiliation and teaching them separately, with all the planning and teaching of RE being in the hands of the various religions rather than the school or State. This type and approach to RE is also confessional, but to avoid confusing it with option one, it can be referred to as the ‘Do it Yourself Choice.’ The fourth option, which can be called ‘Educational RE’, would be a form of RE that would treat all existing religions as neither true nor false, recognise that each of the religions has something valuable to offer to those who believe it to be true, or that there is relative and parochial truth in each of the existing religions. Educational RE would therefore aim at helping pupils to understand the phenomenon of religion and how it affects people through a study of examples drawn from all existing religions and based on their beliefs, practices, histories, sacred literature and ‘saints.’ This kind of RE would also aim at developing the pupils’ religious sensitivity or potentialities, which is central to the development of a balanced personality; the general aim of education. According to Tumwesigire, this kind of RE is not only the most viable and meaningful, but also the most desirable in twenty-first century pluralistic and secular-minded Africa. 26 Before discussing the viability and justification of ‘Educational RE’, the author explains why the other three options cannot be educationally and morally justified in pluralistic African society. Selecting only one (major) religion to be taught as RE in schools would be unfair to the unfavoured religions and their individual members. It would also be morally inappropriate to teach one religion and its beliefs as indisputable truths in public schools that are maintained by the State and shared by all children of the society. The second option of choosing common elements among all religions and teaching them to all pupils as Agreed RE would not do justice to all the religions because it is the areas upon which they disagree that make the religions what they are. So teaching about religions without mentioning the areas of disagreement would be trivialising them. The third option of leaving RE in the hands of the various religions and dividing and teaching classes according to religious affiliation is educationally and socially unacceptable for a number of reasons. Such an arrangement is logistically difficult to run, religions may fail to provide the necessary personnel to teach the subject in schools, and the use of untrained teachers from the religions/churches as RE teachers will lead to indoctrination rather than proper education. Tumwesigire then explains why and how Educational RE would work. It would begin by treating all religions equally before looking at their deepest beliefs and their most conflicting ones. It would also remain neutral about whether the religions are true or not. In this way, Educational RE would enable pupils to enter into the hearts or self- understanding of the religions in order to examine and understand them without fear or bias. Thus Educational RE would reject the traditional role of making pupils religious and giving them religious nurture as this job is better done by the religions or churches themselves. Its main concern, therefore, would be the understanding of the general concept of religion and development of pupils’ potential of religious sensitivity. Its role would thus be that of informing pupils about the various religions found in the society in which they live. Educational RE would teach pupils to be intelligent and knowledgeable about religion/religions and enable them to ask ultimate questions. 27 So in its method, this form of RE would be rational, objective and open-ended, while its aims would be broader and much more educational than those of traditional RE. In his/her approach, the RE teacher would remain neutral and allow pupils to decide for themselves as to what beliefs they want to hold or to reject if they so wish. He/she would be expected to help them to think rationally about all that is presented to them so that if they have to choose or reject any of it, they do so objectively, on sound criteria and autonomously, using their free will. There are two important issues to be learned from Tumwesigire’s study. Firstly, like many other modern African countries, Zambia is a religiously and culturally pluralistic country where it is difficult to decide what kind of RE to offer in public schools. Secondly, although the Confessional RE, Agreed RE and ‘Do it Yourself Approach’ options are possible, it is only the Educational RE model that is appropriate for such countries. For example, in the history of RE in Zambia the three options above were tried but found to be inappropriate as (Zambian) society developed and became increasingly pluralistic. On the other hand, Educational RE is legally and morally appropriate because it treats all religions equally and examines their beliefs impartially. Therefore, the form or model of RE that this thesis will recommend for Zambia is in line with Tumwesigire’s Educational RE option. In South Africa, Gordon Mitchell (1995), discussed principles for the development of religious and moral education in a country emerging from years of minority rule. He first explained that despite considerable religious diversity in the country, the apartheid state education system supported and taught the White culture and religious tradition of the ruling party in the school curriculum. Consequently, most pupils felt devalued by this approach. So after the transition to democracy, it was expected that decisions about the curriculum would be the result of full discussion and negotiation involving all interested parties. The author then stated some principles which were to guide the development of Religious and Moral Education in the country. Care had to be taken to consult all religious 30 African citizens. African education too was grounded in the life and religious world- view of the whites. It was supposed to create African citizens who would serve the purpose of the State without any critical thinking, questioning and disobedience. The author then states the proposed aims and approaches of religion and citizen education and explains the difference between the Christian indoctrination of the past and the pluralistic or multi-religion approach envisaged in the proposed policy. Thus unlike in the past, RE would aim at exposing learners to different belief systems in order to promote such values as respect for other beliefs, diversity, tolerance, justice, compassion and commitment. Similarly, citizen education as incorporated into learning materials across the curriculum will promote such related values as democracy, social justice and equity, equality, non-racism and non-sexism, human dignity, an open society, accountability, rule of law and reconciliation. Steyn also points out that there have been negative reactions to the proposed policy on RE, though these mainly Christian church reactions are likely to be overcome through consultation between the Department of Education and church leaders. In her conclusion, the author is concerned that the many years of Christian indoctrination and Christian privilege could lead to continued resistance to the introduction of multi-religion education. However, she advises that in a democratic country such as new South Africa, all citizens have the obligation to respect the equal rights of fellow citizens, regardless of their faith. This study is important for my study because the changes in South African education (including RE) which it describes are very similar to those currently taking place in Zambia. Thus Zambia can learn something from the proposed South African national policy on religion and education, which ensures that RE will aim at exposing learners to different belief systems fairly and thus promote respect for other beliefs, diversity, tolerance, justice, compassion and commitment. All these aims and values are relevant to this study as they are similar to those I will recommend for Zambia. Zambia can also learn from the kind of consultation that went on between the South African state and the religious traditions, especially the Christian Church, in her own RE development process. 31 2.3 British/Commonwealth Studies Like the African studies, most of the studies surveyed here describe the historical development of RE from confessionalism in the 1950s/60s, through phenomenological RE in the 1970s, to integrative experiential and phenomenological approaches in the 1980s/90s. Integrative approaches are currently being replaced, mainly in Britain, by newer approaches and methodologies that are still under research and development. Other studies discuss or examine current issues in RE. The main issues discussed and recommendations made include the need for school RE to be educational rather than religious; the need for RE to go beyond the exclusive-inclusive debate and adopt a more acceptable (middle-path) approach; the need for increased pluralism in RE in modern pluralist societies; the need for professionalism and integrity among religious educators in the handling of religious traditions and their beliefs and values; the need for co- operation between professional religious educators and religious insiders; and the need for RE to aim at religious literacy and maturity in learners. As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, the issues (above) surrounding RE in Britain, Australia, Canada and other Commonwealth member countries are relevant to Zambian RE because of the influence of British educational philosophies and Commonwealth educational traditions on Zambia (and other former British colonies). The first such study is entitled, ‘From Christian Nurture to Religious Education: The British Experience’, by John M. Hull (1984). He described and explained how RE in England and Wales developed from exclusive Christian nurture to an inclusive, multi- faith curriculum subject. According to Hull, the teaching of the Christian religion had been part of public education since 1870 and had been officially encouraged by legislation since 1944. Up to the late 1960s, there were Agreed or Ecumenical syllabuses based on the seeking of agreed truth. However, in the 1970s new syllabuses starting with the 1975 Birmingham Agreed Syllabus, began to come on the scene. Instead of truth, they sought agreement on procedure and on what all stakeholders held to be of worthy study. The syllabuses therefore, aimed at treating or describing all religions in such a way that believers would not disagree with their presentation. 32 By the mid-1980s, the RE situation in England and Wales was still patchy with areas and schools within the Local Education Authority (LEA) areas having considerable differences in their approach to the subject. The existence of ethnic communities and the plurality of cultures was used by different areas and schools to either justify a descriptive study of world religions, or an almost evangelistic or exclusive presentation of Christianity. The author pointed out that although Christians in Britain and other Western democracies felt that public education systems had reached an anti-Christian position, the churches’ mission or role in education was and should be to safeguard the open secularity of education and to preserve pluralism. He concluded the study by suggesting and explaining three factors to be considered in deciding the approach to be taken in RE in schools: the constitution of the school (or country), the composition of the staff and pupils (their rights and beliefs), and parents’ rights (and beliefs). This study is important because the stages of British RE development that it describes are almost identical with those Zambian RE has and is still passing through. Hull’s view that the churches role in education should be to help safeguard the secularity of education and preserve pluralism is important for religious harmony and stability in multi-faith societies like Zambia. However, his suggestion that decisions on the approach to RE should be based on factors like the composition of the school staff and parental rights is a weakness. Even where LEAs are in charge of school education policies (as in England and Wales), parents and teachers’ beliefs and values should not dictate or unduely influence the nature of RE offered in schools. Decisions on the approach to RE in pluralistic countries like Zambia and Britain should be based more on the values of the national constitution than anything else. In 1987, Michael Grimmitt completed a big study in which he delved into philosophical, sociological and psychological issues affecting RE in democratic and pluralistic societies like Britain. In chapter 6 he focused on the (educational) concerns of the subject in such countries. They include interpretive, functional, personal and humanising concerns. 35 without some sense of secure self-identity, necessitating the promotion of both qualities by RE. According to Slee, a consideration of the two models and the logic at work within them also indicates that both confessionalism and phenomenological religious studies are necessarily driven outwards beyond their own confines to meet and embrace each other in a larger reality. While the logic of Christian belief pushes outwards to encounter the neighbour, the logic of the phenomenological approach compels religious studies inwards beyond merely describing the external phenomena of religion towards encountering and dialoguing with the commitment and truth-claims at the heart of religion. The author concludes her essay by emphasising that a reconciliation or ‘middle way’ between the two dominant approaches to RE is long overdue. This kind of RE should have a vision which does justice to the nature of religion, the full meaning of education and the needs and capacities of people engaged in the religious education process; this can be achieved partly by taking seriously perplexing questions about pupils’ commitments, spiritual development and quest for meaning. Slee’s critical discussion of the confessional and phenomenological models of RE is very relevant to the first part of my study, i.e., examination and analysis of models of RE in modern/post-modern society. The author raises a number of important issues which I will refer to, criticise or build on. Her study therefore provides one of the main background studies to my own study. In Canada, Ovey N. Mohammed (1992), justified or explained the need for pluralism in RE in a paper entitled, ‘Multiculturalism and Religious Education.’ The author examined the reasons for teaching non-Christian religions in Canadian schools, first from the side of education and then from that of religion. From the educational point of view, non-Christian religions should be taught in schools to help the young to understand, appreciate and respect religious differences as a preparation for life in a multicultural society. These religions should be taught in schools even if and even where there are no 36 non-Christians in schools. The teaching of the other religions will not only promote national harmony but international understanding as well in a shrinking world. In explaining the religious point of view, Mohammed examines the Catholic attitude to these religions. He shows that since Vatican II, the church’s attitude to other religions has been positive. It is acknowledged that all religions are instruments of salvation, and (Catholic) Christians are encouraged, in dialogue with the followers of other religions, to preserve and promote the spiritual and moral values found in these religions and cultures. According to the author, Vatican II and the Catholic church encourage religious educators to have knowledge of and teach about non-Christian religions because education in religion should not only be a preparation for eternal life but also a preparation for life in a multi-cultural society. In reflecting and concluding his discussion, the author emphasises that from both the educational and religious points of view, it is important to have non-Christian religions taught in schools because it is through our encounters with others that we learn who we are and through their probing questions that we come to a deeper understanding of what we really believe. By studying the faiths of others along with our own, we come to experience and understand our connectedness with human diversity and are therefore called to full humanity. He stresses that in preparing children for life in the 21st century, religious educators must help them to know (or understand) their faith more profoundly and to understand the faith of others more accurately. Mohammed’s study brings out three issues that are of great importance to this particular study and Zambia. Firstly, different religious traditions, including those that may not be represented in schools, should be taught in order to help young people understand, appreciate and respect religious differences. This will in turn promote national harmony and international understanding. Secondly, by studying other religious traditions alongside their own, pupils are likely to understand their beliefs and values even better. Thirdly, in pluralistic countries like Zambia and Canada, RE should not be regarded as a 37 preparation for salvation, but as a preparation for life in a multi-cultural society. The three issues are thus in line with what this study will argue concerning Zambian RE. After an exploration of RE as a school subject in Britain, the Westhill RE 5 - 16 Project Team produced a manual entitled, ‘How Do I Teach RE?,’ in 1992. Garth Read et al showed how the aims of RE could be translated into classroom practice. In Part One of the manual/book, they gave the aim of RE as being ‘to help children mature in relation to their own patterns of belief and behaviour through exploring religious beliefs and practices and related human experiences’ (1992: 2). The authors went on to list and explain the principles of modern RE in a pluralist country as follows: (a) Children need to develop their own beliefs and values and a consistent pattern of behaviour. (b) RE has a particularly important contribution to make to spiritual, moral and social development of children. (c) In RE, the role of the teacher is that of educator. (d) As in all subject areas, the teaching of RE must be related to the ages and abilities of the children being taught. (e) RE will help children to explore a range of religious beliefs and practices and related human experiences. (f) RE has a major contribution to make in helping children to develop a positive and understanding attitude towards diversity in our pluralistic society. (g) RE does not make assumptions about, or preconditions for, the personal commitments of teachers or children. Since Zambian RE has largely developed along British approaches to the subject, the principles of modern RE proposed by Read et al in their study are relevant or applicable to Zambia. Thus most of the principles discussed by the authors are in line with the approach to RE that my study envisages for Zambia. In 1988, the British Government passed a new Education Act, which replaced the 1944 Act. Writing a few years afterwards, Andrew Wright (1993) used a critical, historical 40 According to Scott, the ecclesial enculturation tradition through catechesis is openly confessional. Its interest is to awaken, nourish and develop a learner’s personal belief, to hand on the tradition, solidify the learner’s religious identity and build up the ecclesial body. Its focus is on conservation of tradition and deepening of religious affiliation. In its conceptual stance, this ‘inner border’ model sticks to its own tradition. Although it claims to respect the territorial rights of others, the model’s prevailing concern is to be vigilant about its own borders and to pursue its own way or tradition. Religious educators in catechetical tradition view their work as initiation, adaptation, transmission, translation and church maintenance through a process of enculturation, nurture, evangelisation and conversion. As such the ecclesial enculturation tradition or inner border model does not provide an adequate context for meaningful dialogue in the contemporary religious world as there remains a lingering suspicion with regard to the principles, process and purposes of this catechetical tradition. The author asks: Do they (catechetical principles, process and purpose) honour and are they compatible with the educational values of openness, enquiry, freedom and the critical spirit? In short, can this tradition or model of RE confront modernity or is it just a camouflage of old attitudes and values, she asks. According to Scott, the revisionist tradition or Christian religious education takes as its frame of reference the intersection of religious tradition and contemporary human experience. It is informed by both theology and educational theory. The educational process in Christian religious education involves the application of modern critical reason to the belief, symbols, values, texts and lived-life of the Christian tradition. In other words Christian religious education is a dialectical border model in terms of its internal critical enquiry of tradition and its external reflectiveness on the public world. Religious educators in the revisionist tradition or Christian religious education emphasise two educational poles in their work; conservation and liberation, continuity and change, tradition and transformation, devotion and enquiry. The dialectical method embodied or used in the revisionist tradition engages learners in dialogue with the Christian tradition (past, present and future) which in turn opens up possibilities both for the recreation of the tradition and the individual persons or learners within the traditions. Thus education functions in the community to transmit tradition, to enable people/learners to interpret 41 their experience and to open their possibility of transforming the individual, the faith community and the world. However, the author points out that Christian religious education is not a critical educational method or approach designed to pass on open critical values. While the approach deepens the reflective process, the RE aspect is confined to being a delivery system for the prevailing theology or religious tradition. Theology or faith holds a place of primacy over curriculum content, criteria and concepts. In other words, Christian religious education is simply a form of practical theology as it fails to push the critical process to some of its logical conclusions. Thus fundamental Christian assumptions (on revelation) and existing ecclesial patterns of power are left unchallenged. So Christian religious education needs an educational (rather than a religious) framework in order to be true to its emancipatory interests and to become one genuine expression or form of RE. Lastly, according to the author the reconceptualist tradition represents an attempt to retrieve and reconstruct the richest meaning of the term religious education (RE). The tradition is a ‘border crossing model’ whose vision goes beyond the local ecclesial community and crosses over into a large public context with new, redesigned curricula and content. RE takes education as its overarching frame of reference such that education becomes the arena for dealing with the critical religious issues and concerns of life. This entails or involves exploring the meaning of one’s own religious life in relation to both those who share that life and those who do not. Genuine intra-and inter-religious dialogue is sought through a process of self-reflection, sympathetic understanding, open encounter and mutual exchange. Scott further explains that RE does not start with prior confessional assumptions nor is it tied to denominational self-interests. Proselytising, evangelising and dogmatising are contrary to its spirit and purpose. Instead, the commitment is to uninhibited interaction and enquiry in which understanding of religion and life is sought. In other words, RE is a way of learning to live intelligently and religiously in the modern world. It seeks to foster greater appreciation of one’s (the learner’s) own religious life and less misunderstanding of that of other people. Reconceptualised RE creates educational space or opportunity where public dialogue can take place between religious traditions and between the religious and non-religious on pressing religious questions of 42 today. Its ultimate goal is to assist/learners to think, feel, imagine, act and grow religiously and intellectually. According to Scott, developmentally, reconceptualised RE can be considered the most mature form of religious education. This form of religious education can transform religious traditions, increase tolerance and enhance mutual understanding. It resists the domestication of the religious to church or religious tradition-talk and the educational to school-talk. However, this reconceptualist tradition of religious education is still problematic. It is largely undeveloped in practice and no consensus has yet emerged on its structure and nature for it to acquire the allegiance or support of (all) professional religious educators. Christian religious educators find it difficult to identify with the reconceptualist tradition. According to the author, their religious knowledge and commitments foster loyalty to their own tradition and the paradigm shift or change of attitude and approach required by the new RE seems to risk too much as it could lead to deconstruction of firmly held tenets in their religious tradition(s). This study by Scott is very relevant to my study because it describes in detail three different RE traditions which mirror the three stages of development that Zambian RE has passed through. The Ecclesial enculturation, Revisionist and Reconceptualist traditions of RE are also in line with the three possible models of RE in modern/post- modern society which will be discussed in the first part of my study. Furthermore, an important point highlighted by Scott’s study is the lack of consensus on the scope, methodology and principles of RE among the educators not only in Britain but other countries too. Thus in Zambia some religious educators see RE as representing Christian religious education, while others see the subject as representing education in different religions. My study will emphasise that Zambian RE should be pluralistic and aimed at critical understanding of different religious traditions. In 1995, Terence J. Lovat carried out an important research study aimed at discovering Hindu and Muslim perspectives on public curricula (or syllabuses) in Religious Studies and Values Education in Australia’s New South Wales. His paper entitled, ‘Multi-faith 45 According to the author, between 1991 and 1994 there were a number of circulars to Local Education Authorities (LEAs) from the Department of Education and Science and the National Curriculum Council (later the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA)) with rather conflicting advice on the meaning of the 1988 Act for Agreed Syllabuses in RE. However, when the National Curriculum and Assessment Authority prepared model syllabuses for the LEAs, it ensured that the major world religions were to be taught at all key stages and that material or content to be used for each religion was authorised by the faith communities themselves. A combination of systematic and thematic treatment/coverage of (each) religion was also favoured. According to Robson, despite a divisive political use of RE during the period under consideration, the final version of the SCAA model syllabuses reflected the professional rather than the political vision of the nature of the RE curriculum. An important point to be learned from this study is that in a multi-faith country like Britain and Zambia, there is need to include different world religions, especially those represented in the country, in the RE syllabuses. Also important is the idea that the material to be included in the syllabuses should be authorised or approved by the religious traditions themselves. In short, there should be serious consultations between educationalists and leaders or representatives of religious groups and communities. In 1999, Elizabeth Templeton studied the position of RE in Britain which, according to her, was similar to that in many other Western European countries, New Zealand, parts of Australia and some Canadian states. She first rehearsed a little history behind the existing situation before arguing, as a lay Christian theologian, the merit of having many lay people as teachers (of RE). Until the 1960s, schools and legislators in the UK saw nothing wrong with schools being places for religious instruction (RI) or ‘Scripture’. Everyday began with classes saying the Lord’s Prayer and all teachers were expected to undertake this task. However, for a variety of reasons in the late 1960s and the 1970s, great change took place in British thinking about education in general and RE in particular. Britain was becoming an increasingly diverse society and was no longer monolithically Christian. 46 According to Templeton, the 1960s saw an explicit shift from teacher/subject to child- centred modes of education. The late 1960s also precipitated a serious critique of authoritarian attitudes in many areas of life. Structures of secular education that gave Christianity a privileged position were changed. So by the early 1970s it was recognised that there was an important distinction between the task of any faith community (or church) and that of the school, that the teacher’s professional role was to present all faiths to pupils without distorting the self-understanding of those within the faith community in question, and that a competent RE teacher did not necessarily need to be a Christian. The author then argues that the teacher as an educator, whether Christian or not, is not meant, professionally, to be an advocate of Christianity over or against other religions. The aim both the Christian teacher and non-Christian teacher share as educators is to maximise awareness, sensitivity, accuracy of discernment, integrity, self-critical exploration and recognition of the contribution made to society by the spiritual traditions which we encounter today. She further argues that the fact that the largest proportion of RE teaching is done by lay people, makes the subject more educationally effective. Although there are some (very few) clergy who are capable of teaching RE in an open and sensitive manner, it would be very difficult to overcome suspicions of protectionism (and indoctrination) or to disprove them if it were only clergy who were entrusted with the religious education of their receptive flocks or school community. According to the author, most clergy and chaplains lack pedagogical concerns or skills and cannot distinguish educational and evangelical roles. The closed and confessional nature of their work makes it even more difficult for them to handle RE professionally. Templeton concludes her article by re-emphasising that the educational vision that lies behind contemporary, lay-taught, secular-authorised religious and moral education in the UK (and elsewhere) is one that nourishes pupils’ spiritual growth while helping them to learn to cope creatively with the complexity of the global community in the third millennium. 47 This study raises two important issues for my study. Firstly, in modern society including Zambia, there should be a distinction between the work of a faith community or religious group and that of the school. While faith communities and religious groups teach the beliefs and values of one religion (their own) in an evangelistic way, the school presents different religions to pupils in an impartial manner. Secondly, in order to avoid the problem of indoctrination, school RE should be taught by professionally trained teachers, not the (untrained) clergy. While the former are able to take pedagogical concerns and skills seriously in their handling of the subject, the latter cannot easily distinguish their educational and evangelical roles. The distinction between the work of the religious group or church and that of the school and hence between evangelisation and professional teaching of RE is a major concern of my study. However, Templeton’s view that RE should nourish pupils’ spiritual growth seems to be confessional and therefore not part of what this study will consider to be educational aims of RE in modern Zambia. In a multi-religious society RE should aim at promoting critical understanding of religion rather than spiritual growth. The promotion of spiritual growth should be the responsibility of religious groups and their private schools. At the turn of the millennium, Michael Grimmitt (2000) edited a book which also carried his own article/chapter entitled, ‘Contemporary Pedagogies of Religious Education: What are they?’. In the chapter, he first identifies eight types of pedagogical models for use in non-denominational and non-confessional RE from scholarly literature produced in the UK during the last forty or so years. These are: (a) Liberal Christian Theological, Experiential, Implicit Models. (b) A Phenomenological, Undogmatic, Explicit Model. (c) Integrative Experiential and Phenomenological Models. (d) Human Development, Instrumental Learning About, Learning From Models. (e) An Ethnographic, ‘Interpretative’, Multi-Faith Model. (f) A Revelation– Centred, Concept– Cracking, Trinitarian Christian Realist Model. (g) A Literacy-Centred, Critical Realist Model. 50 informing the Integrative approach involves encouraging pupils ‘to build conceptual bridges between their own experiences and what they recognise to be the central concepts of religion’ (Grimmitt 2000: 31). According to the author, despite the models’ attempt to closely associate the two approaches through religious experience, the transition from reflecting on personal experience to exploring individual experiences in different religions has not been supported by clear pedagogical procedures or principles. 4. Human Development, Instrumental, Learning About, Learning From Models This ‘Human Development’ Model endorses the importance of presenting the beliefs and practices of religions to pupils accurately and in a manner which enables them to empathise with and understand the subjective religious consciousness of committed religious adherents. Thus it endorses and advocates the use of the phenomenological approach. In addition, it stresses the instrumental value that the study of religious content should have to pupils’ spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. In order to achieve this the Model emphasises the need for pedagogical procedures or strategies which support learning about and learning from religion or strategies which help pupils in translating insights gained from their study of RE topics and material in personal terms. The pedagogical principle informing the ‘Human Development’ Model is that the structure of the curriculum and the choice of content and teaching methods must all be specifically designed or chosen to enable pupils to develop the skills and abilities of being able to apply religious insights to an understanding of their own situations and experiences and to their own self-concept. 5. An Ethnographic, ‘Interpretative’, Multi-faith Model It encourages pupils to focus upon personal knowledge and experiences which can be related to material from the religious traditions or the interactive natures of the pupil’s engagement with the (religious) content. It also encourages pupils to use material from a religious tradition as a stimulus to reflecting upon matters of personal significance or concern. The model’s strategy for achieving the above 51 involves engaging pupils in interpretative activities similar to those of the religious believer in order to gain insights into their way of life. The strategy also depends on the teacher having the skills to help pupils ‘to build bridges between the experiences of children in the stories and the experiences of children using the materials in school’ (Ibid: 39). Lastly, the pedagogical principle informing this model is that understanding how religious people and groups within the same religious tradition interpret and express their understanding of faith in a variety of ways requires pupils to become active interpreters of religious meaning making, not just passive observers or recipients of information about a tradition. 6. A Revelation-Centred, Concept-Cracking, Trinitarian Christian Realist Model According to this Model, any kind of interaction between pupils and religious material should result in achieving accurate understanding of Christian beliefs and pupils’ understanding becoming ‘more closely accommodated to the doctrinal meaning of the text’ (Ibid: 42). To achieve this, teachers should use the ‘concept-cracking’ process in the teaching of Christian beliefs. The approach involves finding parallels between Christian beliefs and pupils’ experiences and using them to lead pupils to understanding Christianity and learning from it. The pedagogical principle underlying this Model is that both the educational and religious outcomes of RE are achieved when the subject provides children with an accurate understanding of what religious adherents believe, not when some personal, existential insight occurs which is not directly related to a tradition’s self-understanding. 7. A Literacy-Centred, Critical Realist Model This model of RE is (was) still under development, but the following broad concerns have (had) been identified as those which it would need to incorporate: (i) a genuinely child-centred RE must begin with the principle that the child’s pre-understanding is a vital component to the learning process; 52 (ii) RE must encourage children to explore and develop their own emergent religious viewpoints, not by expecting them merely to rely on their own individual preferences and inclinations but by actively challenging them to consider other options; (iii) the concern will be with the selection of an appropriate range of contrasting narratives that will enable the emergence (or development) of religious literacy (in the pupil). 8. Constructivist Models of Teaching and Learning in RE Like the Literacy-Centred, Critical Realist Model, these models too are/were still under development. However, the pedagogical principles already articulated by some proponents of the model are centred around ‘the encouragement of pupils’ life-knowledge that is … gained from experience …[and] is communicated and refined through selective conversation with others’ (Ibid: 45). Their intention is also to further develop a pedagogy which enables pupils to construct links between their life-knowledge and formal religious concepts. A related but slightly different pedagogical strategy being developed by proponents at Birmingham University embodies the following constructivist principles of learning: (a) The item of religious content is always brought into a dynamic relationship with critical and reflective thought which pupils undertake as situated or contextualised individuals. (b) Any communication of information about the item of religious content on the part of the teacher is always related to the constructions that pupils are using, applying and articulating. (c) The sequence of learning is always from encouraging egocentric interpretations of experiencing within situated thought or pupils’ life- worlds through alternative contextualised interpretations (represented by other pupils’ or the teacher’s), to evaluative judgments about the interests which each interpretation serves and expresses. 55 Zambian RE which I will discuss in the second part of this study. Secondly, the author’s criticism of the (current) inclusivism versus exclusivism impasse in RE and his advocacy for a new critical approach that goes beyond it is in line with what I will argue and propose as the way forward for Zambian RE. In 2001, Andrew Wright followed up his 2000 study with an exploration of the contribution of liberal school RE to the well-being of liberal society as a whole. His argument in this work or article entitled, ‘Religious Literacy and Democratic Citizenship’, is based on the following main claims: (a) Liberal RE seeks to develop public religious literacy and enhance liberal values. (b) Although liberal RE is effective in supporting liberal values of freedom of belief and respect for others, its commitment to the principle of reasoned argument is often overshadowed by its attempts to censor and combat religious intolerance. (c) The resulting failure to achieve a genuinely liberal RE is related to a tendency to approach liberalism as a world-view in need of protection, rather than as an interim or temporary ethic designed to enhance reasonable human discourse (and dialogue). (d) RE can best serve liberal democracy by developing a religiously literate society in which the value of rational dialogue is given priority over any opposition to and censorship of religious intolerance. In explaining his argument, Wright states that the forms taken by liberal RE are as diverse as liberal democracy itself. He gives examples of France and the United States of America where the teaching of religion or RE in the public education system is officially not allowed as a way of ensuring that the value of freedom of belief even among learners is upheld. Other examples are England and Wales (and many countries in Europe and the Commonwealth) where liberal RE takes the form of a commitment to state-sponsored public RE for all. Here a liberal understanding of the nature and function of religious teaching is adopted and the task of the religious educator is not to advocate or nurture religious faith, but to promote the development of an informed and intelligent 56 understanding of religion, independent of the actual faith commitments of both teacher and pupil. In their different ways; exclusion from the curriculum in France and the United States and inclusion in the curriculum in England and Wales, both examples seek to uphold liberal values. According to Wright, despite the promotion and upholding of the liberal values of freedom of belief and respect for others, liberal RE still has significant flaws in its fabric. Due to lack of a secure sense of its own identity, liberal RE has adopted defensive measures that have led to the repression of open debate. As such the subject is not yet liberal enough to guarantee the emergence of public religion literacy. Secondly, liberal RE’s approach and methodology tend to view religions from an immanent rather than transcendent perspective; religion is seen as a dimension of human culture rather than as a response to divine revelation. Thus liberal RE has brought with it a negation of the question of realistic truth that is central to the major religious traditions of the world. Thirdly, in its concern to remain neutral towards the various religious truth-claims, liberal RE tends to misrepresent the self-understanding of these belief systems. Fourthly, liberal RE is inconsistent in that rather than following the standard liberal route or approach of seeking to enable children to engage intelligently with what constitutes authentic and inauthentic religion, liberal religious educators instead opt for protection of liberalism from the perceived threat of anti-liberal religionism or sectarianism. Liberal RE, therefore, does not only fail to attend to the diversity of possible religious representations but also fails to allow non-liberal representations a fair hearing. Thus despite the enormous strides forward or positive developments made by or in liberal RE in enhancing the quality of public religious literacy, the subject still exhibits tendencies and characteristics that undermine the very foundations of liberalism itself. As a way forward, the author suggests that liberal education should discard a ‘hard notion of liberalism’ as a comprehensive worldview committed to its own distinctive beliefs and morality and adopt a ‘soft notion of liberalism’ as an interim political ethic committed to reasonable dialogue. He explains that in its hard form liberalism faces many threats posed by anti-liberal forces and needs protection through repression and censorship. But in its 57 soft form liberalism seeks to nurture the human quest for knowledge, wisdom and truth across contrasting and conflicting worldviews. Therefore, there should be a shift within RE from hard to soft forms of liberalism. The author further suggests and explains that the task of the kind of RE that supports a soft programmatic version of liberalism will be to uphold and nurture intelligent conversation between ‘religious and secular traditions of all persuasions and tendencies’ (Wright 2001: 215). Rather than being a process of advocacy, education will be a search for intelligence, wisdom, insight and literacy. In addition, such RE for religious literacy will enable children or learners to begin to develop the ability to ‘make their own way through the maze of what are frequently diverse, messy and contradictory religious options’ (Ibid). It will further enable children, who are the adults of tomorrow, to become responsible, open and literate in the way they deal with the ambiguity of religion in both its liberal and non-liberal manifestations. In short, the cultivation of religious literacy will be the fundamental contribution that liberal RE will make to the well-being of liberal, democratic society. In this third study, Wright reiterates his criticism of the existing liberal approaches to RE in Britain and his advocacy for a new critical approach that can enhance religious literacy. Like his second study above, this too is important because its recommendations are in line with the religious literacy and critical understanding model of RE which this thesis will put forward as the most appropriate for Zambia. Of particular importance is the author’s proposal that modern RE should be a search for intelligence, wisdom, insight and literacy in the area of religion and values. In its ‘Religion and Education in Britain’ section, The Economist (2001, December 8), argues that the Tony Blair (Labour) government plan to boost religion’s role in education by allocating more money to schools run by faith-based organizations, is controversial; this is because while people should be allowed to educate children according to whatever religion they choose, state-funded education is not supposed to be in the hands of religious organisations. While a state-financed education system should cater to everybody equally, irrespective of their faith, religious schools discriminate against people on the basis of their beliefs. Every religion believes that it has a monopoly on the 60 grammar or the language and wider symbolic patterns of religions and the interpretive skills necessary to gain that understanding. In addition, the interpretive process (in RE) should result in edification and learning from religion. The author points out that due to the ‘conversational’ view or nature of interpretive RE, there should be a partnership or co-operation between professionals and insiders. The professionals; curriculum writers and teachers should have the final editorial role, while making the involvement or role of religious insiders clear. Lastly but not least, Jackson emphasises that if justice and fairness are to be promoted through publicly funded education, then the ideal form of RE in state-funded schools should be ‘secular’ but not ‘secularist.’ RE should be secular in the same way that India regards itself as a secular country, rather than a country promoting secularism (Ibid: 139). He explains, however, that there remains tension between an epistemology or approaches based on the authority of revelation and a view of knowledge or approaches based on reason and experience. While there is unlikely to be any way of overcoming this paradox and tension, the author suggests that a pragmatic solution is that in a democratic and multi-faith situation, those claiming the universal truth and application of a particular way of life should first acknowledge that there are other people who hold different beliefs and who have different ways of life. This study by Jackson is relevant to my study because its critique of phenomenological approaches to RE in Britain will be incorporated into my own critique of the phenomenological model of RE. The interpretive approach to the subject which the author proposes and argues for also forms part of the background to the religious literacy and critical understanding model of RE which I will propose and recommend for Zambia. Also relevant are his recommendations that the aims of RE in publicly funded schools should be to develop understanding of religions, their language and symbolic patterns, and that there should be co-operation between the professional religious educators and religious insiders in the development or production of RE materials. This study will fully subscribe to these views or recommendations in its discussion and analysis of Zambian RE. 61 Like Robson (1996) and The Economist (2001), William K. Kay (2002), critically discussed issues of political involvement and government policy in British RE. The author dwelt on political perspectives on church schools and RE during the period from Prime Minister Thatcher to Blair. He points out that in democratic countries such as Britain, politicians and educationalists often understand RE quite differently. While educationalists may argue the merits of the subject on philosophical grounds and concern themselves with issues of confessionalism or indoctrination, politicians consider RE valuable because it is seen as helping to improve children’s morality, enhance the cultural identity of religious minorities and foster cultural pluralism. The author then contrasts the Conservative and Labour parties’ understanding of church schools and RE. Conservative politicians see church schools as being an example of parental choice and RE as being an aid to moral education, while Labour politicians see both church schools and RE as contributing to a pluralistic society and aiding the cultural identity of ethnic groups. His conclusion, however, is that provided RE can be seen to offer morality, citizenship and cultural identity in addition to what it offers about religion, the subject is likely to be acceptable to politicians of all colours (and parties) except those who are determinedly secularist. Kay’s conclusion that British RE should be seen to offer morality, citizenship, and cultural identity in addition to the understanding of religion is partly relevant to what my study will recommend for Zambian RE. This will be on the basis that the Zambian national policy on education recommends the promotion of spiritual, moral and civic values by the curriculum, especially RE. However, moral education (ME) or moral values will be recommended only as part of the critical understanding of religions, not as a specific aim of RE. As much as possible, ME and RE should be treated as different subjects and not one. The last relevant study reviewed under this (British/Commonwealth) category of literature is Robert Jackson’s 2003 article entitled, ‘Citizenship as a Replacement for Religious Education or RE as a Contributor to Citizenship Education?’ He points out that one of the lively debates (in the UK) that has resulted from social and intellectual 62 pluralism at the turn of the millennium concerns moral and religious education and education for citizenship. The author goes on to state the main points of David Hargreaves’s argument that multi-faith RE should be replaced with citizenship education in secular or public schools, while denominational RE should continue in state-funded religious schools. Multi-faith or non-denominational RE in secular schools cannot serve as a buttress to moral education because religion is no longer as central as Christianity used to be in British society in the past. The author then points out that Hargreaves’s argument is flawed and tries to show that RE has a great deal to offer to citizenship education, for example through critical analysis of religion in relation to concepts such as ethnicity, community and nationality, and by providing various skills relevant to understanding social plurality. RE has some distinctive contributions to offer to the debates about national and global citizenship. He further argues that RE in common or public schools should help young people, at their own level, to participate in relevant debates so that they are equipped for the kind of intercultural and inter-religious communication that is necessary for the health of pluralistic and democratic societies (like Britain). This second study by Jackson is important because of its criticism of Hargreaves’s view that there should be state-funded denominational RE in religious schools. The criticism is in line with my own criticism, in the first part of the thesis, of the (British) policy of using taxpayers’ money to fund some religious schools. The author’s argument that RE has an important contribution to make towards citizenship education and to the health of pluralistic and democratic societies like Britain is valid and relevant to this study on the Zambian RE situation. The nature of educational, multi-faith RE today is such that it equips learners with skills relevant to understanding social plurality and global citizenship. 2.4 American Studies 65 schools are not very helpful because the best way to get rid of proselytisation is to ‘teach religion’ or to examine the issues of religion in a critical and unbiased way. (c) The practice of religious life – This refers to prayer and social action that every religious person, including learners, is supposed to engage in. This part of religious education is neither studied nor taught directly. The education in this area is more indirect than in the previous two aspects or elements of Education in religion. There is an element of privacy or intimacy that has to be respected here. This area of religious education is closely related to catechetics or Christian education and could easily be called as such. The author further explains that since practice is/should be at the centre of education, practice of religious life through prayer and social action can enrich Education in religion by bringing into it the contemplative and the protest against injustice. Finally, Moran concludes his article by challenging religious education (RE) to save what Christians (religious people) most value from their past but open doors for the future, and to help people speak and live the truth they know while removing the intolerance that is embedded in their religious language. Moran’s study is important because the ‘ecclesiastical’ and ‘educational’ languages or approaches to RE which he describes are applicable to the current Zambian situation. Some Zambians, including religious educators, regard RE as having religious aims while others see it as having educational aims. This study will criticise the view that Zambian RE should have religious aims and emphasise the opposite view (that it should be educational). The author’s proposals that the study of religion should be placed in an educational context rather than an ecclesiastical one, and that religious traditions should consider handing over control of RE to public education or schools, are relevant to what this study will recommend concerning the relationship between religious groups and the Ministry of Education in Zambia. In a multi-religious society like Zambia and the USA, it is important that religious traditions are studied according to educational principles in secular, public schools, if religious tolerance and harmony are to be promoted. 66 The second study is by Joseph P. Viteritti (1996), who briefly discusses the delicate relationship between religion, the constitution and the schools (education) in the USA. He points out that in the beginning education in almost all the states of the USA was regarded as inseparable from religious instruction and the clergy were supposed to provide both. However, the establishment clause in the First Amendment to the American Constitution which aimed at preventing the state from establishing a national religion ended up creating a ‘wall of separation’ between church and state, church and public school or simply religious instruction and secular education. Thus public money allocated for education belonged to the public school system and families wanting to provide children with an education reflecting their religious values (in parochial or religious schools) were not entitled to it. To make matters worse for such families, public schools have been transformed into vehicles of a secularist orthodoxy instead of remaining neutral on questions of religious faith and values. The author further observes that the American public mood in the 1990s seemed not to be in favour of continued strict separation between religion/church and state and that a process of accommodation or reconciliation seemed to be under way. He urges all those who still adhere to the liberal tradition of tolerance to defend religious freedom in schools, which he refers to as the last frontier of freedom. Viteritti concludes his discussion by reiterating that while government-run schools should remain secular, there should be alternative arrangements within the state- imposed educational standards to allow devoutly religious American families to educate their children in a setting that supports their (religious) values and convictions just like in other democratic nations. There are two important points to note from this study. Firstly, in order to avoid the development or endorsement of a secularist orthodoxy, there is need for some kind of RE in public, state-run schools in pluralistic and democratic societies, including Zambia. Secondly, in order to ensure that state-run schools remain secular and equitable in 67 orientation, any RE programme developed for such schools should be multi-faith, impartial and fair to all. However, the study’s weakness lies in its advocacy for a system where the state supports or funds educational settings (or schools and colleges) where children of religiously devout Americans can learn and have their religious values and convictions supported. In pluralistic countries like the USA and Zambia, the state should not give such support to sectarian educational institutions because religion and the state are normally separated by the constitution. State-run schools too are not supposed to be used to promote the religious beliefs and values of any specific religious group. The last study reviewed here is that of Carolyn D. Herrington (2000) who explores how the USA’s educational reform movement’s focus on curriculum standards, academic rigour and a larger role for the state may be failing to connect with the religious communities that place greater value on instruction in morality, strong interpersonal relations and ethos of individual responsibility. He points out that in the hyper-pluralist USA, the role of religion in public schooling has always been part of a larger conversation or debate about the relationship between schooling and society. This is because the debate about the curriculum is usually seen as a debate about what it means to be an American. The author then shows from research findings what traditional Christians (among Protestants, Catholics, and ‘Born-agains’) think about public schools. While only 27% of the general population think it would be beneficial for the schools to reintroduce prayer (as opposed to moments of silence), 62% of traditional Christian parents think this (prayer) would in fact be useful. While about 47% of Americans think the schools should teach the Ten Commandments, three-quarters (75%) of traditional Christian parents strongly support their (Ten Commandments) teaching. Similarly, while only 39% of the general population objects to the teaching about non-Christian religions, 53% of the traditional Christian parents believe that their inclusion in the curriculum syllabus is actually not appropriate. 70 teaching and material. Nevertheless, the model’s aims remained the induction and nurture of pupils in the Christian faith (Wright 1993: 16). 3.1.1 Aims The confessional model of RE aims at instructing pupils into the beliefs and values of one religion (e.g. Christianity), initiating learners into a religious heritage or transmitting the (religious) heritage, passing on religious and moral values, handing on the symbols of the religious tradition and deepening or nurturing faith, loyalty and commitment in and to that religious tradition. According to Scott (1994: 278), these aims of confessionalism are ‘an inducement [of learners] to accept and to make their own, the faith, loyalty, piety and cognitive perspective of the main stream church as, presently understood and practiced.’ In other words, on one level, confessionalism is ‘denominational education in the faith’ (Ibid). The confessional model of RE also assumes that all learners are Christians, Muslims, Jews etc., or that they are all adherents of the same religious tradition. Emphasis is therefore on the teaching from the Bible, the Koran or other scriptures concerned with the fundamental or main doctrines or beliefs of the religious tradition concerned. So on another level, confessionalism can be said to be ecumenical education in the faith. However, in both confessionalism and neo-confessionalism, the logical proof that the teaching has been successful is loyalty, commitment and practice of one’s religion. 3.1.2 Conceptual framework (or Description) In its conservative form, the confessional model of RE takes as its frame of reference service in and on behalf of the church. This means that it is ‘catechesis …which is set in the framework of Church ministry’ (Ibid: 278). ‘Its constitutive interest is to awaken, nourish and develop one [the learner’s] personal belief …and build up the ecclesial body’ (Ibid: 277). Thus although the model claims to respect other traditions, it actually sticks to its own religious or faith tradition in terms of content and coverage. And being concerned, as it is, with conservation and transmission of tradition, the confessional model is generally authoritative and dogmatic (in approach). 71 In its liberal form, confessionalism is equivalent to implicit RE which is ‘neo- confessional’1 in that it is open to all forms of religion though still keen to have religion understood and appreciated within its own tradition (Rummery 1975: 157). Implicit RE or neo-confessionalism is also less authoritative and dogmatic as it starts from and takes account of pupils’ own experience and perspectives on issues under discussion (Wright 1993: 16). As such, the liberal form of the confessional model of RE takes as its frame of reference service on behalf of both the church and the state. In other words, although induction and nurture in a specific religious faith remains liberal confessionalism’s aim, the model is also interested in the promotion of some general awareness of religious truth and how religion (such as Christianity) responds to the pupils’ own existential issues, problems and every day questions. 3.1.3 Educational process, role of the teacher and pedagogical principles and procedures Naturally, the conservative, catechetical form of the confessional model requires religious belief and commitment on the part of the teacher. In the Christian tradition, for example, he or she is expected to be someone who is ‘a believer and worshipper, endowed with [both] parental and the Church’s own mandate [to teach]’ (Rummery 1975: 157). Consequently, teachers or religious educators under this model consider their work to include ‘initiation, adaptation, transmission, translation [and] Church [religious group] maintenance’ (Scott 1994: 278). Thus as indicated in the aims above, the educational or teaching and learning process under the model amounts to faith nurture, evangelisation and conversion. It includes teaching and learning faith tradition doctrines, beliefs and moral values from the Bible, the Koran or other scriptures concerned. It also includes activities such as worship, prayer, and hymn singing. 1 The difference between confessionalism and neo-confessionalism is that while the former refers to instruction in particular beliefs to the exclusion of others, the latter attempts to become more acceptable by tolerating other world religions ‘as extras to the officially approved viewpoint [or religion], …improving methods and techniques in accordance with the findings of educational research, and…constructing syllabuses based on the capacities, needs and interests of the pupils’ (Schools Council 1971: 30). 72 In its liberal form, the confessional model takes the teacher to be someone who is a committed person in the dominant faith tradition, though open to all aspects of religious thought and life. He or she therefore initiates pupils into the faith and transmits its beliefs and values to them, but he or she also subjects this process of initiation and transmission to some educational principles. Thus it partly concerns itself with other dimensions of religion, though emphasis is still on the doctrinal and the moral. It makes some critical appraisal of tradition so that while respecting the authority of the religious tradition’s teaching, it does not do so uncritically. The model also upholds the public duty of the state to transmit to successive generations certain moral and religious values assumed to be important to the continued coherence and unity of society (Slee 1989: 127). It is therefore interested in the development of genuine, though limited, autonomy in the pupils and in encouraging some free religious commitment on their part. The kind of interaction between pupils and the religious material which the confessional model of RE envisions taking place is in line with its aims for the subject, i.e., initiating pupils into one religious tradition (e.g. the Christian tradition) and nurturing faith, loyalty and commitment to its beliefs and values. So the pupils’ engagement with the syllabus material should enable them to gain knowledge awareness and understanding of that religious tradition and the meaning of its teaching or the need for total commitment to its doctrines beliefs and values. The pedagogical procedures or strategies used by the model to achieve this revolve around direct instruction by the teacher on the creeds, corner stone beliefs and traditions of the denomination or religious group and the study of scriptures on selected themes or topics. Thus by receiving catechetical instruction on the creeds and dogmas of a faith tradition, pupils acquire knowledge of the key beliefs which form the foundation of faith in the religious tradition concerned. By reading and discussing scriptural texts on carefully selected themes and topics and receiving further instruction or guidance from the teacher, the pupils begin to gain awareness and understanding of the meaning of the religious tradition’s teaching on various aspects of life, especially moral conduct. This awareness and understanding is 75 Related to the aspect of promoting life-long development as a positive characteristic of the confessional model of RE is the nurture of religious development (Ibid). As traditionally understood and commonly stated, the main aim of RE in most Commonwealth and English-speaking countries is to contribute to the spiritual, moral, [social], cultural, mental and physical development of pupils (Slee 1989: 126). As can be seen, this is a broad aim which does not only include nurture of religious development above, but also encompasses most other curriculum subjects’ specific aims. This, therefore, means that the aim(s) of school education in general and RE in particular cannot be fully achieved without some form of confessionalism in the education or teaching and learning process. After all ‘Christian nurture and liberal education are not necessarily incompatible’ (Thiessen 1993: 207), and ‘criticism [liberal education] without dogmatism [confessionalism] is empty’ (Hull et al 1994: 272; Simuchimba 1997: 14). 3.1.5 Weaknesses (or limitations) The above arguments in favour of the confessional model of RE do not, of course, mean that the model has no weaknesses or limitations. Perhaps the main flaw of this model in a pluralistic society is its inherent injustice towards learners from other religious traditions. Since, as explained above, the aim of the model is to initiate pupils into a particular religion, the participation of pupils or learners from other religious traditions or none in school RE means that they will literally be forced to abandon their beliefs and to adopt those into which the class is being initiated. This is not only a violation of the learners’ fundamental human rights (especially that of freedom of conscience), but it is also dictatorial and undemocratic. As Grimmitt (1987: 39) puts it: ‘the divine authority by which particular values and beliefs are given an absolute and normative status in one religious tradition cannot be assumed to be prescriptive for others.’ Thus Christian values and beliefs, for example, cannot be regarded as superior to Muslim, Hindu, Baha’i or African Traditional values and beliefs and be imposed on learners from such backgrounds. Every pupil’s religious (and secular) background should be respected. 76 A related weakness of the confessional approach to RE is that since major religious traditions, especially Christianity, are internally divided, some pupils will always be marginalised. If Christianity which, as well known, is divided into several hundred denominations or churches is taught, which interpretation of the religion is to be taught? If Catholicism prevails, Protestant learners will be marginalised and vice-versa. If an ecumenical or ‘agreed syllabus’ is attempted within Protestantism, the bigger churches’ interpretations are likely to prevail over those of the smaller churches, thereby marginalising learners from the latter. The problem is even worse where there is an established state religion or church, most of whose beliefs and values all pupils, including non-members, have to learn. So whichever way one looks at it, the confessional model of RE is divisive, discriminatory and therefore inappropriate in a pluralistic society. Another big weakness of the model is that it does not honour and is not fully compatible with the values and principles of modern liberal education, which include ‘openness, enquiry, freedom [rationality], and the critical spirit’ (Scott 1994: 279). Due to its confessional or catechetical aims, content and general conservative nature, the confessional model of RE cannot easily embrace and employ all the principles and critical methodologies of liberal education without threatening itself. Since, as earlier explained, one major aim of confessionalism is to nurture and deepen religious faith and commitment, it cannot, without difficulty, at the same time promote the critical spirit which could easily undermine such faith, commitment and loyalty to the religious tradition being studied. Similarly, the confessional approach to RE cannot easily allow openness and freedom or autonomy in the educational process as it could predispose pupils towards disloyalty, lack of commitment and possible change of religious affiliation. Therefore, although it can be said that there is a ‘fair balance of both [the] religious and educational’ especially in neo-confessionalism (Rummery 1975: 157), the model is educationally unsatisfactory for modern/post-modern liberal society. If the confessional model of RE is educationally unsatisfactory for modern/post-modern societies, then it is also socially inadequate. Due to the growth of scientific and technological knowledge, capitalism, industrialisation, urbanisation and migration, there have been ‘fundamental shifts …in the composition and identity of our world cultures’ 77 (Slee 1989: 127). As a result of this cultural transformation, modern/post-modern societies or nations have become increasingly plural culturally, religiously, politically and socially. With efficient transport and communication systems and improved international relations, the world seems to be irreversibly developing into the proverbial global village. As such, the confessional model of RE, with its conservative, exclusive and in-ward looking tendencies, is often not only inadequate but also an ‘illusory’ and a ‘misguided’ approach to education in such a society (Ibid: 131). A related but slightly different problem with the confessional model of RE is that it ‘tends to conceal awareness of a larger world of religious diversity and to lack a public character to build bridges of communication with it’ (Scott 1994: 279). As explained earlier, confessional RE involves the teaching and learning of the beliefs, moral values and doctrines of a particular religious or faith tradition. This exclusive focus on one form of religion (e.g. Christianity) alone is likely to do little or nothing at all to help pupils to become aware of the reality of the existence of religions other than their own, both within and outside their society. Yet modern RE is often seen as providing a unique opportunity and platform for interfaith dialogue in multi-faith societies (Simuchimba 1997: 33). Thus the confessional model of RE often fails to provide such an opportunity and platform (for dialogue) because of its intent on evangelisation, faith-nurture and conversion in the teaching and learning process. Confessionalism is frequently not open and flexible enough to facilitate meaningful communication and interchange between different religious traditions. The foregoing argument brings us to another related limitation of the confessional approach to RE; that it can lead to fanaticism and prejudice. For example, by aiming at the ‘induction and nurture [of pupils] in a Christian faith and value system’ (Wright 1993:16), and insisting on ‘understanding from within [Christianity]’ (Rummery 1975: 157), the confessional model of RE ‘can turn the mind of a denomination [or Christian tradition] upon itself as a standard for itself’ (Scott 1994:280). Such a situation would be very conducive for the emergence and growth of Christian fanaticism, fundamentalism, and prejudice against people holding non-Christian views, beliefs and values. Needless, 80 religious and faith traditions are also likely to see the phenomenological approach to RE as serving the useful purpose of promoting intra- and inter-religious understanding and ecumenism which are necessary in modern multi-faith societies. 3.2.3 Educational process, role of the teacher and pedagogical process and principles Unlike confessionalism, the phenomenological model of RE does not require or demand religious commitment on the part of the teacher. He or she may be committed but does not allow his or her commitment to interfere with the educational process. Thus the teacher’s work is to present the subject or religious material in a fair and objective manner, while taking care not to offend any pupil’s religious viewpoints and beliefs (Rummery 1975: 157). His or her role is not to nurture faith and initiate pupils into the beliefs and values of any particular religion, but to facilitate objective understanding of the different religious traditions, their beliefs, values and practices. Proselytising, conversion, evangelising and dogmatising are not part of the educational or teaching and learning process under the phenomenological model of RE. Rather, the process is largely descriptive and involves describing and discussing religion in terms of the six2 major aspects suggested by Smart (1968: 15-18), namely: the doctrinal, mythological, ethical, ritual, experiential, and social (dimensions). Alternatively, religion is described in terms of typological themes such as founders, festivals, sacred places, holy books and pilgrimages, or rite of passage themes such as birth, initiation, marriage and death. Specially prepared RE textbooks covering the six dimensions of the religion being studied are used for reference but where possible, and depending on the topic, the actual scriptures or holy books are referred to. As indicated in 3.2.2 above, this description and discussion requires that both teacher and pupil temporarily put aside their personal views, beliefs and values so that the teacher can effectively serve as an impartial presenter and moderator and the pupil can ‘gain access to a universal religious experience and the different worlds of other 2 As part of continued development of the phenomenological model and the dimensional approach to teaching about religions, Smart later added a seventh major aspect called the material and artistic dimension (Smart 1989; Watson 1993: 44). 81 religions’ (Scott 1994: 284). The impartial or fair description, discussion and evaluation is supposed to enable the pupil to understand different religions from the point of view of the believers, adherents or insiders of those religious traditions. Going together with the phenomenological description and discussion of religious traditions are subsidiary processes of self-reflection, open encounter and mutual exchange, which do not only make dialogue among the pupils possible, but also lead to the shifting and enrichment of pupils’ personal experiences and standpoints (Ibid). The kind of interaction between pupils and the syllabus content or material that phenomenological RE envisages taking place is in line with the three main phenomenological principles mentioned earlier. Firstly, pupils should engage with the religious content with the intention of studying the self-understanding of religious traditions by bracketing personal views, opinions and beliefs and resisting evaluation of the traditions. Secondly, engagement with the religious content should enable pupils to develop or acquire capacities that will enable them to understand or become aware of the influence of religion in human life, society, culture and the people’s way of life. Thirdly, studying the syllabus or religious content should lead to rational thinking, consideration of relevant facts and choice of a religious or non-religious position based on those facts. In order to achieve this kind of interaction, the phenomenological model of RE deploys Smart’s six dimensional approach to the study of religions as the main pedagogical strategy. By studying, describing or analysing a religious tradition in terms of its doctrinal, mythological, ethical, ritual, experiential and social dimensions while bracketing their own views and opinions, pupils come to understand the beliefs and practices of the tradition almost in the same way as adherents do. But they also acquire skills and abilities that enable them to begin to understand the influence of religion on culture, society and individual or personal lives. By ‘providing a broad conceptual framework of religion which emphasises the similarities between religions’ (Grimmitt 2000: 28), the phenomenological model also makes it possible for pupils to acquire knowledge of different religious traditions and to treat them as of equal value or importance. Another pedagogical strategy deployed by the phenonomenological approach to RE is the use of typological themes such as founders, festivals, sacred 82 places, holy books, pilgrimages, etc., and rite of passage themes such as birth, initiation, marriage and death in the study of religions (Grimmitt 1987: 229). By examining religious material or content in terms of these themes, pupils come to gain accurate knowledge and understanding of different religious traditions under study and can use this to think and make rational decisions and choices in the area of religious life. Studying religion in terms of rite of passage themes which, as can be seen, are cultural in orientation also helps pupils to become more aware of the influence of religion on their culture and way of life. From the foregoing, it seems clear that the pedagogical principle informing the phenomenological approach to RE is that ‘learning and teaching in … [the subject] should promote both academic and personal forms of knowledge and understanding’ (Grimmitt 2000: 27). 3.2.4 Strengths Although the phenomenological approach to RE has received a lot of criticism, especially from religious circles, it still ‘provides…[a] satisfactory rationale for religious education in state [or public] schools’ (Grimmitt 1987: 41). The phenomenological model seems to provide an appropriate approach to RE in modern, pluralistic society for a number of reasons. To begin with, modern/post-modern pluralistic societies normally have democratic constitutions with guarantees of religious freedom for all citizens, including pupils. Like the confessional model, phenomenological RE respects and upholds both parents’ and pupils’ freedom of conscience and religion by covering and treating all religious traditions in society equally and avoiding imposition of any particular religious or secular beliefs and views on any pupil. However, this respect and upholding of religious freedoms is educationally more positive as it does not deny pupils knowledge of other religions by focusing on one religion only, as the confessional model does. Additionally, by aiming at understanding of religions rather than nurturing faith and commitment to any particular one, phenomenological RE remains true to the modern educational principle of respecting pupils’ autonomy and freedom of choice in matters of faith and belief. 85 3.2.5 Weaknesses Despite the foregoing, the phenomenological model and approach to RE has weaknesses, limitations or points of criticism. For clarity, I will divide the criticisms into those that are religiously based and those that are purely educational in nature. Beginning with the religiously based category of limitations, it has been pointed out that the phenomenological approach ‘‘domesticates’ religion by reducing it to a secular academic discipline or to an expression of human behaviour and by equating ‘religious understanding’ with a way of interpreting…human experience’ (Grimmitt 1987: 40; Simuchimba 1997: 29). At issue here is the difference between the way different religious traditions understand and hold themselves and the way the phenomenological approach to RE holds and treats each one of them. All religious traditions, especially Christianity and Islam, see themselves as bearers of ‘revealed, eternal Truth’, while the phenomenological approach to RE sees and treats them only as ‘truth-claims’ of equal value which are all ‘worth of attention’ (Grimmitt 1987: 40) in the educational or academic study of religion. This is to say that education through the phenomenological approach to RE can misuse religions by interpreting religious beliefs and practices as mere expressions of human behaviour and treating religious beliefs and behaviour as a form or category of knowledge. For the religions and adherents, their beliefs, practices and behaviour are divinely motivated and should be studied with the aim of deepening religious faith and commitment rather than academic understanding; the study of their religious beliefs and behaviour should lead to the attainment of religious and spiritual goals and aims rather than secular, humanistic or academic ones. Closely related to this point of view is the criticism that by using a broad framework which enables it to study as many religious traditions as exist in society, the phenomenological model of RE often relativises and trivialises the faith or truth-claims of the religions concerned. Critics and commentators have pointed out that phenomenological RE’s approach of religious equality and procedural neutrality (Ibid) and its apparent lack of concern for issues of religious truth (Jackson 2002/1997: 10) leads to the relativisation of the beliefs and values of the religions being studied. But as noted above, all religious traditions consider their beliefs and values as absolute and true 86 rather than relative and questionable. Explaining this weakness of phenomenological RE further, Slee (1989: 130) states: The attempt to reduce religious faiths into manageable curriculum commodities can easily lead to unhelpful emphases on the superficial, the external and the the exotic ... at the expense of such less obvious and less accessible factors as the profound interiority of faith, the mundane ordinariness of discipleship, and the radical reforming zeal within traditions which challenges them to continually renew themselves. The inevitable over-simplification … [or] misrepresentation of the richness, complexity and dynamism of religious traditions can be deeply offensive to religious believers...[.] So the phenomenological model of RE’s multi-faith coverage, insistence on the equality of faith or truth-claims and procedural neutrality in class can amount to an indirect promotion and endorsement among pupils of an attitude of relativism towards religions. Clearly, this is the opposite of what each religious tradition expects to result from the pupils’ encounter with its faith or truth-claims: religious traditions expect loyalty and commitment to their ways of life rather than a relativistic attitude towards them. However, despite the foregoing concerns, it is difficult to find any other fair and equitable way of dealing with the various religious traditions in public school RE other than the multi-faith and neutralist approach of the phenomenological model. Attempts can be made to take the different truth-claims more seriously, but as Grimmitt (1987: 46) puts it: Faith communities …[have] to decide whether it is more desirable to exclude the study of religion from schools altogether because religious beliefs cannot be conveyed in a manner which enables the pupils’ understanding of them to be identical to that of adherents, or whether it is more desirable that pupils should have some opportunity to explore religious beliefs and values even though their understanding of them may, in some respects, differ from those of adherents. If there is a price to be paid for establishing a relationship between education and religion, then, it seems…that cost has to be met by the religions, not by education. Still related to the foregoing argument(s) or concerns is the view that since the phenomenological model of RE does not demand explicit religious commitment on the part of the teacher, the chances of the religious traditions’ truth-claims, doctrines and values being misrepresented or even distorted by an outside observer teacher are very 87 high (Watson 1987: 145; Simuchimba 1997: 30). The basis of this concern and criticism is that religious experience, belief and faith is usually a very personal and subjective thing, which can only be fully understood and properly explained by a religious tradition insider. In many cases too, teachers of RE in state-run, public schools may not be religiously committed. Additionally, in most Commonwealth, English-speaking and European countries, most, if not all, teachers of RE in public schools are Christians. Although these teachers of the subject are professionally expected to be impartial, fair, understanding and respectful to all religions, they are only human beings and their impartiality and fairness cannot always be guaranteed. As such, the different religious traditions cannot be certain that their religious material and integrity will not be violated. For critics of the phenomenological model of RE, religious traditions can only be fairly and properly presented or dealt with in class by religiously committed teachers who fully understand what their truth-claims and values mean. However, while the teacher’s religious faith and commitment might be helpful, the ability to teach RE is not synonymous with the ability to believe and to become religiously committed, but rather with the ability to respect and be fair to religion as a result of professional training. Religious faith and commitment cannot be substituted for professional training as a qualification for RE teaching in public and even religious schools. An educator will normally be able to use his or her knowledge of the religions and professional skills to present the different religious traditions as fairly and as accurately as possible. So the foregoing is a rather extreme and unrealistic criticism of the model. Coming to educational weaknesses, Cox (1983: 132) and Slee (1989: 129) have criticised the phenomenological model on grounds that it might be too complex for most school age learners. The thrust of this criticism seems to be that most pupils or learners have no interest and capacity for skills of ‘self-transcendence’ and empathy required by the approach; neither do they have the ability to understand the many difficult religious concepts from different religious traditions which the model describes. However, this criticism is not wholly valid because both the content and methodology in many 90 3.3 Religious Literacy and Critical Understanding Model The confessional and phenomenological approaches to RE which I have analysed so far remain the most dominant models of how and why RE should be taught in schools. Both Grimmitt (2000: 26) and Wright (2000: 70) acknowledge that the problem of trying to reconcile the confessional and phenomenological models or the exclusive and inclusive approaches has helped to shape current theory and practice in RE. The tension between the two approaches and attempts to go beyond it has led to ‘the development of nearly all other [recent] pedagogical models of RE’ (Grimmit 2000: 26). According to Grimmitt (Ibid), these models include: (a) Human Development, Instrumental, Learning-about, Learning- from Models (b) Ethnographic, Interpretive, Multi-faith Models (c) Literacy-centred, Critical Realist Models (d) Revelation-centred, Concept-cracking, Trinitarian Christian- Realist Models (e) Integrative, Experiential and Phenomenological Models. (f) Constructivist Models of Learning and Teaching in RE. Despite significant differences between them, the first three of these models or approaches can still be seen as the same because the outcome of RE which the literacy- centred model envisages is ‘closely in accord with ... the intentions of both human development and ethnographic models’ (Ibid: 44). In other words, the literacy-centred model attempts to build on the human development and the ethnographic model in the further development of RE in Britain (and beyond). I have, therefore, merged the three approaches into the one I have called Literacy-centred and Critical Understanding Model, though it is mainly based on Andrew Wright’s (1993, 2000) approach. 3.3.1 Aims As a result of the above stated merger, the aims of the literacy-centred and critical understanding approach to RE may be stated as follows: RE should enable pupils to 91 become religiously literate, i.e. to think critically, act and communicate intelligently about the ultimate questions that religions ask (Wright 1993: 64). RE should also enable the pupils to ‘develop an understanding of the religious worldviews of others, their religious language and symbols, and their feelings and attitudes’ (Jackson 2002/1997: 112). The subject should further help pupils to mature through exploring religious beliefs and practices related to human experiences and critical evaluation of their own beliefs and values (Grimmitt 1987: 141; Read et al 1992: 2). Thus, central to the aims of this model of RE is literacy or education in the area of religion. It refers to the ability not only to deal with religious issues critically and intelligently, but also to the ability to interpret, explain or give the meaning of religious language and symbols. This inevitably means that pupils have to be equipped with philosophical and theological skills appropriate to their educational level, since critical analysis and interpretation of religious language, grammar and symbolism require such skills and abilities. 3.3.2 Conceptual framework As already stated, the religious literacy and critical understanding model of RE attempts to combine common aspects of the existing ethnographic and religious literacy models or approaches to RE into one. Therefore, the unified model proposes to base its development as an approach to teaching and learning in the area of religion on the following broad principles adapted from Wright (2000: 93-102) and Jackson (2002/1997: 45 –50): (a) The need to go beyond the existing exclusive- inclusive, intrinsic- extrinsic impasse - In order to overcome this impasse and do justice to both the integrity of specific religious traditions and the value of communication between different religious traditions, there is need for RE to help promote mutual recognition and better understanding between the traditions. (b) The need to develop a critical awareness of ideology - In order to identify and overcome the problem of ideological manipulation by the religious traditions, there is need for RE to promote critical thinking, which is needed to confront ideological representation. 92 (c) The need to establish a process oriented pedagogy - In order to take the ambiguity and controversial nature of religion seriously and overcome the problem of imposing rigid religious definitions and solutions, there is need to replace a foundationalist approach with a process oriented approach in RE. (d) The need for critical understanding and interpretation - In order to clearly understand other people’s religious or cultural ways of life or the nature of religion and thus overcome the danger of generalising about cultures and religions, there is need for critical analysis of religious data and treatment of religious traditions as ‘organic, internally diverse and more complex than belief systems’ (Jackson 2002: 197). As can be seen from the foregoing principles, the model is critical and interpretive rather than merely descriptive and content-based. It emphasises critical understanding of different religious beliefs and values and awareness of their ideological nature rather than objective understanding of religious facts only. Despite its emphasis on critical understanding and awareness, the model takes seriously the different religious traditions by recognising their specificity and promoting better understanding between them in its methodology and approach. As such, the religious literacy and critical understanding model goes beyond the neutral religious knowledge and understanding intentions or aims of the phenomenological approach. However, like the phenomenological approach, the model takes as its frame of reference service on behalf of the state and its secular education system, though with more sensitive, consultative or dialogical use of religious material and general representation of the religious traditions. With such sympathetic treatment of the religious traditions, many religions are also likely to consider the model as serving their interests better than the neutralist phenomenological model of RE. 3.3.3 Educational process, role of the teacher and pedagogical procedures and principles Like the phenomenological model of RE, the religious literacy and critical understanding model does not require religious commitment for teaching the subject. Teachers can belong to any religious background or none provided they are professionally trained and 95 others. The main pedagogical procedure which the religious literacy and critical understanding model should use to achieve this kind of interaction is the critical study of the historical, cultural, linguistic and social traditions of the religious traditions. By reading, examining and discussing contrasting and controversial material on the historical, cultural and social beliefs and traditions of the religions, pupils will begin to gain some understanding of the controversial and ambiguous nature of religion. By reading and examining appropriate material on religion from anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy and from theology and literary criticism, pupils will begin to acquire the skills they need in order to critically understand religious material and symbolism. By studying the linguistic traditions and religious language as found in religious texts and interpreting religious language as used by religious insiders and outsiders, pupils will gain further understanding of religious traditions. With appropriate teaching-learning strategies, these procedures should enable the teacher to help pupils become religiously literate, critical and wise in dealing with religious issues. From the foregoing, the main pedagogical principle that would be seen as informing the religious literacy and critical understanding model of RE can be stated as follows: teaching and learning in RE should promote critical personal and academic forms of knowledge and understanding of religion. 3.3.4 Strengths It is very clear that the main strength or positive aspect of the religious literacy and critical understanding model of RE as formulated here is that it goes beyond the exclusive versus inclusive or mono-faith versus multi-faith debate and problem in RE by proposing ‘an agenda in which the plurality of spiritual [or religious] traditions are respected, the quest for spiritual truth takes centre stage and the overarching aim is to enhance children’s level of spiritual [religious] literacy’ (Wright 2000: 103). In other words, the model respects both the plurality and specificity of religion by taking the truth-claims of each religion seriously and dealing with its specific beliefs and values, including controversial ones, in class as part of the content material. This approach makes it possible for the model to promote both personal and academic forms of knowledge and 96 understanding of religion(s) rather than understanding only, as in the phenomenological model. In promoting both personal and academic understanding of religion, the religious literacy and critical understanding model also takes care of both the religious groups’ concerns for religious truth and the need for commitment to it and the educational concerns for critical, evaluative understanding of religion. In short, the model is ‘fair to both religion and education’ (Simuchimba 2000: 17). Another point of strength in the religious literacy and critical understanding model is in its being process-based rather than content-based. In line with the requirements of modern education, the religious literacy and critical understanding model seeks to replace the foundationalist and content-based approach to RE found in both the phenomenological and confessional models of the subject with a process-based approach which, as Wright (2000: 10) explains, opens up the possibility of educative exchanges between different religious or spiritual traditions; encourages controversy, ambiguity and tension; facilitates conversation, dialogue and debate; and stimulates the emergence of religious or spiritual literacy in pupils. As can be seen, this process-based model or approach to the subject is likely to promote critical thinking, intelligence or wisdom and autonomy in pupils in the area of religion, rather than just knowledge and understanding promoted by the foundationalist approach of the phenomenological model. This means that the religious literacy and critical understanding model takes care of the main educational problem of phenomenological RE; that of suppressing pupils’ beliefs, experiences, views and opinions and thus preventing the development of critical skills in them. Similarly, the model effectively solves the problem of uncritical commitment and loyalty to any religious or spiritual tradition’s beliefs and values, which is characteristic of confessional RE. Conversely, the promotion of critical thinking and wisdom is also likely to check the problem of unreasonable rejection of religious faith and commitment in the pupils. Additionally, the religious literacy and critical understanding model’s approach of deliberately and actively encouraging discussion and debate of different religious or 97 spiritual truth-claims, controversies and ambiguities is likely to result in more effective dialogue and understanding between pupils or persons of different religious and cultural backgrounds. Under the confessional model of RE, other religious or spiritual truth- claims are ignored, while under the phenomenological model different religious truth- claims are treated superficially. Moreover, the controversial and ambiguous characteristics of religion(s) are conveniently rounded off or left out completely. This approach does not help to effectively prepare pupils for mutual understanding and co- existence in a pluralistic society as it denies them the chance to develop the skills and attitudes of debate, articulation, self-expression, listening, open-mindedness, tolerance and respect for others. It is in the vigorous promotion of these important and other related skills and attitudes rather than their indirect inculcation in pupils that the religious literacy and critical understanding model educationally goes beyond the confessional and phenomenological models of RE. In addition, dealing with controversial and ambiguous religious matters in class using a process or skills-based approach to teaching will challenge teachers of RE much more than the confessional and phenomenological models. This means that the literacy and critical understanding model will call for proper professional training of teachers and help to curtail the existing tendency in many societies to regard RE as a ‘Cinderella subject’ (Wright 1993: 5-7 & 2000: 93) which anyone, especially religious people, can teach or which can be easily ignored and left out on the school curriculum. 3.3.5 Weaknesses As already explained, the religious literacy and critical understanding model is a reconstitution or merger mainly of the Andrew Wright-created literacy-centred, critical realist model and the Robert Jackson-led ethnographic, interpretive, multi-faith model of RE. As such, the model does not completely avoid the main weaknesses, criticisms or charges of relativism and reductionism levelled against the ethnographic approach, especially since it continues to be multi-faith. However, since modern/post modern societies or nations no longer have ‘cultural stability, a common religion and moral certainty…[but are] highly pluralistic…with many different ways of life and claims to