Design of Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits using Computer-Aided Engineering, Lecture notes of Compiler Design

Download Design of Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits using Computer-Aided Engineering and more Lecture notes Compiler Design in PDF only on Docsity! CRAIG R. MOORE and JOHN E. PENN CUSTOM DESIGN OF MONOLITHIC MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMIC'S) have been designed at the Applied Physics Laboratory and fabricated at several gallium arsenide foundries since 1989. The design tools and methods for designing MMIC'S have evolved to the present use of integrated computer-aided engineering software with programmable design components. Software elements that can be customized create multilayer mask descriptions of components for transistors, resistors, capacitors, inductors, microstrip connections, and other structures to improve the quality and productivity of MMIC's designed at the Laboratory. The schematic, physical layout, and simulation models are integrated into a single software tool, eliminating much potential for error. Experience with various foundries and various MMIC design techniques have increased our ability to design at higher and higher frequencies with confidence in achieving first-time success. The design improvements have been accompanied by improvements in measurement techniques for higher frequencies using microwave probe stations. This article summarizes MMIC designs at the Laboratory over the past few years and the progress shown and lessons learned. COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING DESIGN OF MMIC'S Software computer-aided engineering tools from EEsof, Inc., are the predominant means of designing monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMIC'S) at APL. A key feature of EEsof's Academy software for MMIC layout is the ease of adding both layout macros and custom electrical models. Another feature is the ability to use a particular fixed or macro layout with any available electrical model, as long as they have the same number of nodal connections. Macros A macro is a software subroutine that creates the physical mask-layer descriptions for an element that can contain variable parameters (Fig. 1). The mask-layer descriptions are used to generate photo masks for each step in the foundries' integrated circuit processing. An example of a useful macro is a metal semiconductor field­ effect transistor (MESFET), which consists of many mask layers but can usually be described as a given MESFET type with N parallel gate fingers each of width w. One of the first macro libraries used with the Academy software was for the TriQuint foundry. It originated at EEsof but was modified by one of the authors of this article, John E. Penn, to create components having no design rule violations. Its first use was in a graduate MMIC design course at The Johns Hopkins University (JHU) in the summer of 1989. Since those initial student designs, the TriQuint library was modified by Penn; a graduate student at JHU later provided additional physical macros and custom electrical models. By late 1990, an entire multichip wafer was designed by using physical macros 300 and custom electrical models. Today, EEsof has a new TriQuint Smart Library containing physical and electrical macros, which is being used in the MMIC design course at JHU taught by both authors of this article. A group of people including Dale Dawson of Westing­ house teamed together to teach a power MMIC design course at JHU that uses a custom physical and electrical library for Westinghouse's power GaAs process. Employ­ ees of APL have used Westinghouse's library through the JHU course and for MMIC design on APL programs. In 1992, several power amplifiers were designed and fabricated using the Westinghouse library and foundry process. Some were 2-W amplifiers at 6 GHz, and some were O.S-W designs at 13 GHz. Another 200- to 2S0-mW A Resistor I. .1 ~ Length Metal 1 Resistance = (length/width). RPA B Metal 1 \ Metal 2 Layers(s) defining capacitor area Capacitance = area· CPA Figure 1. Example of typical macro elements for monolithic micro­ wave integrated circuits. A. Thin-film resistor. RPA = resistance/ area. B. Capacitor. CPA = capacitance/area. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 14, Number 4 (1993) amplifier at 30 GHz was designed (but has not yet been fabricated) using Westinghouse high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMT'S). The Applied Physics Laboratory created a third MMIC library for the GaAs pseudomorphic HEMT (PHEMT) pro­ cess used by Martin Marietta Laboratories. A fixed set of PHEMT transistors and diodes was used with programma­ ble macros for resistors, capacitors, and micros trip ele­ ments. We used the library to design several low-noise amplifiers and some Schottky diode mixers at 37 GHz for a radiometer design for the Geosat advanced technology model. The library was also used to design a 200- to 250- m W amplifier at 29 to 33 GHz for the ultra-smaIl-aper­ ture terminal (USAT) program. Linear and Nonlinear Simulation The simulation engine in EEsof's software is known as Libra and is accessible within the Academy frame­ work. Both linear and nonlinear simulations can be per­ formed within Libra with some minor constraints to the simulation file. Simulations in the linear region generally use transistors as the active elements where one is con­ cerned with small signal gain, phase, impedance match, and so on. Amplifiers, phase shifters, switching devices, couplers, and the like undergo linear analysis, whereas nonlinear analysis is used for RF power, transients, har­ monic response, power efficiency, mixers, oscillators, transistor current-vs.-voltage curves, and the like. A high­ level simulation at the system level could be considered as a third level of simulation where both linear and non­ linear devices are simulated at a basic building-block level. An example of a system-level simulator is EEsof's Omnisys program, which can use data derived from linear or nonlinear simulations or measurements. Ideally, a single integrated simulation tool would perform linear, nonlinear, or system simulations. Electromagnetic Analysis Another useful analytical tool is the high-frequency structure simulator, which is a three-dimensional electro­ magnetic simulator. Reference 1 describes this tool using design examples. * Design-Rule Checking Design-rule checking is needed for any type of inte­ grated circuit design, including MMIC ' S. The DRACULA program is the industry standard for design-rule checking and has been used for verifying MMIC designs at APL. Design rules were written by using DRACULA'S program­ ming language and are based on TriQuint's guidelines for the process. In recent years, design-rule checking has been added to the relatively inexpensive pc-based Inte­ grated Circuit Editor layout tool, which can check rela­ tively small designs such as most MMIC'S. Design rules for TriQuint's process were created for the Integrated Circuit Editor and tested on APL designs and on student designs at JHU. *Further description and examples will be given in an article by Jablon, Moore, and Penn to be published in the next Digest, which continues the advanced microwave technology theme. f ohns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 14, Number 4 (1993) Plotting Calma is the most widely used standard for integrated circuit mask descriptions. Using this format, one can easily transfer integrated circuit designs between tools for additional modifications or design checking. This feature has been advantageous for obtaining large color plots from a 36-in. Versatec plotter on the computer-aided en­ gineering network. Calma descriptions of MMIC'S are transferred to the Mentor Graphics network and then translated into the Chip graph integrated circuit layout software for plotting. Large color plots are very useful for locating subtle design flaws through visual verification and for improving layouts. Measurement An essential part of design is measurement of the fabricated MMIC' S to verify that the devices operate cor­ rectly and that the simulation models and design meth­ odology are correct. Extra effort to isolate differences between the simulation and measurements will ensure that future designs can be improved to guarantee first­ pass success. Differences can result from variations in device processing, which can be simulated statistically or by using best-/worst-case values before sending the de­ signs to the foundry for fabrication. Measurements of MMIC components (e.g., transistors, capacitors) for resim­ ulation of the fabricated designs can determine whether differences are due to processing changes. Limitations in certain simulation models or the use of models beyond their specified range can also explain some differences. Omitting parasitic capacitances or coupling from ele­ ments spaced closely on the MMIC should be explored, Microwave ~------J measurement 1--- ------, equipment Wafer L----J probe Needle probe Die (chip) /water Figure 2. Wafer probing of monolithic microwave integrated cir­ cuits. 301 C. R. Moore and J. E. Penn A o o '~1 - - ~ -. i-:I ~ r<.!: r<2i • • III [J B 30~------~------~------~----~ 30 24 E a:l ~ 18 Q; 3: o a. "5 12 a. "5 o 6 / / / / / / 24 / 6 OL-------L-------L-------~----~ o -10 -6 -2 2 6 Input power (dBm) Figure 5. A. Photograph of a typical amplifier. B. Output power (black) and efficiency (blue) of a typical amplifier. The solid curves are the simulated values, and the dashed curves are the measured values. us a standard with which to compare the simulation models. As a result, some of the foundry-supplied models were improved. Also, the MESFET measurements allowed resimulation of the designs to see whether differences between the original simulations and the measured devic­ es were due to wafer processing variations or to errors in the simulation models.2 Ka-Band Radiometer U sing a simple macro library for the Martin Marietta GaAs process, amplifiers and mixers were designed and fabricated for the Geosat Advanced Technology Model program. Martin Marietta has a very low-noise, high­ frequency PHEMT GaAs process used for designs at 94 GHz and above. Programmable macros for microstrip elements, resistors, capacitors, and spiral inductors were created for their process . The PHEMT'S and diodes were added using a small library of fixed, active-component layouts. Several low-noise amplifiers were designed for 37-GHz operation. One was designed for lowest noise figure, another for moderate noise figure with good input and output match (voltage standing-wave ratio), and a third for high gain with moderate noise figure. Also, several variations in the bias supply methods were tried on a single amplifier design to see which technique worked best at 37 GHz. Another new concept used in these amplifier designs was "wafer tuning," introduced to 304 A B 20 ~----~------~------~------~-----. 10 -10 -20L-----~-------L------~------~----~ o 10 20 30 40 50 Frequency (GHz) Figure 6. A. Photograph of a radiometer amplifier. B. Simulated gain (black) versus measured gain (blue) for a radiometer ampli­ fier. 20 8 15 6 Ci) Ci) ~ -a ~ -; 10 4 ::J OJ 'co 'i= (9 Q) U) '0 z 5 2 0 0 25 30 35 40 45 Frequency (GHz) Figure 7. Gain and noise figure of a Ka-band low-noise amplifier. Simulated gain (black) , simulated noise figure (blue) , and mea­ sured gain using an HP 8510 probe (red). The circles refer to measured noise figure and gain using an HP 8970 probe. The vertical ranges around the circles indicate the scatter of the measurements, and the horizontal range centered at 37 GHz is the frequency range of the measurements. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 14, Number 4 (1993) us by Martin Marietta; it provides a means of tuning the MMIC' S. Two microstrip stubs with several breakable air bridges spaced 75 /Lm apart were used to tune each amplifier. Although the tuning and testing of the first device may be tedious, the other devices on the wafer can be expected to operate similarly. One need only tune the first device or two, then set all the devices from that wafer to the same tune point for similar operation. Generally, the devices operated fairly well without any tuning. Fig­ ure 6 shows the measured and simulated gain versus frequency of one of the amplifiers. Note the wide band­ width of the 20- to 40-GHz operation. The noise figure was measured for some devices and compared favorably with the simulations (Fig. 7). When testing for noise figure, one must adjust the MESFET bias point for lowest noise, since the transistor performance is sensitive to the DC operating point. A diode mixer operating at 37 GHz was designed using the Martin Marietta Schottky diode GaAs process. The same macro library was used, but the actual GaAs process was slightly different for the diode process and the PHEMT process. Several mixer variations were fabricated using hybrid branch-line couplers and Lange couplers. The Lange couplers were smaller but have higher loss than the A B 30~----~------~----~------~-----. 0 20 (i) iii' -10 :3- :3- en en c .Q 'co c (9 ::; 10 -20 Q5 a: oL------L------~----~------~----~-30 25 27 29 31 33 35 Frequency (GHz) Custom Design of Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits branch-line couplers. The mixers should be tested in the near future. Ka-Band Power Amplifier A power amplifier was needed for a small, low-cost USAT. A 0.25-W amplifier at 30 GHz was designed using MMIC 'S . A first iteration employed the Westinghouse pro­ cess for GaAs HEMT'S. About 200 to 250 mW of output power was expected at 30 GHz with about 20 dB of gain in the three-stage amplifier. An alternative design used the Martin Marietta PHEMT GaAs process; for this design, several PHEMT'S were measured, and a nonlinear model was extracted using a probe station, network analyzer, and Hewlett Packard IC-CAP software. Since the gain of the transistors was higher in the Martin Marietta process, only two stages were required to achieve about 20 dB of small signal gain. Wilkinson couplers were used as power dividers/combiners so that maximum gain with good matching could be obtained in the final stage. As in the previous Westinghouse design, four PHEMT'S were com­ bined in the output stage to achieve 200 to 250 m W of power at 29 to 33 GHz. The layout and simulations of the Martin Marietta power amplifier, currently in fabri­ cation, are shown in Figure 8. C 25 ~------~------~------.-------.--, 25 E20 en :3- i Ci5 ~ 15 >- 15 0 c Q) Q. 'u iD 10 5L-______ L-______ L-L-____ L-______ L-~ 5 -14 -10 -6 -2 2 Input power (dBm) Figure 8. A. Layout of a 30-GHz amplifier. B. Simulated small-signal S-parameters of a 30-GHz amplifier. Gain (black) , output return loss (blue), and input return loss (red). C. Output power (black) and efficiency (blue) versus input power of a 30-GHz amplifier. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 14, Number 4 (1993) 305 C. R. Moore and 1. E. Penn CONCLUSION The Laboratory has significantly advanced MMIC de­ sign, testing, and modeling during the past few years. Future work will continue to push higher frequencies of operation that will challenge both the design and testing of MMIC'S. The goal is to build on previous work by compiling a computer library of component designs that can be used at the system-design level. THE AUTHORS CRAIG R. MOORE is a member of APL' s Principal Staff. He re­ ceived B.E.E. and M.S. degrees from Cornell University in 1962 and 1964. He previously served as associate division head at the Na­ tional Radio Astronomy Observa­ tory, principal research associate for the Australian government, and group manager at Bendix Field Engineering Corporation, before joining APL in 1987. His work at the Laboratory has involved im­ provements to the hydrogen maser, work on ultra-high-Q cryogenic microwave resonators, and MMIC design and testing. He is currently project manager for an ultra-small satellite terminal design effort. Mr. Moore is a senior member of the IEEE and has authored more than twenty papers. He teaches MMIC design at The Johns Hopkins University G.W.c. Whiting School of Engineering. 306 REFERENCES 1 Penn, 1. , and Moore, c., "Model Verification of Passive MMIC Structures Through Measurement and 3D Finite Element Simulation," in Proc. Johns Hopkins University Microwave Symp., pp. 1-3 to 1-13 (Oct 1992). 2Penn, 1. , and Moore, C., "GaAs MMIC Probe Measurements and Calibration Techniques," in 39th ARFTG Conf. Digest, pp. 106-119 (Spring 1992). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: We would like to acknowledge the contributions of Robert Bokulic, Lynn Carpenter, Sheng Cheng, Charles Cook, Matthew Reinhart, Jeffrey Sinsky, Roy Sloan, Karl Thompsen, and William Trimble. JOHN E. PENN is a member of APL'S Senior Staff. He received a B.E.E. from The Georgia Institute of Technology in 1980, and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering and computer science from The Johns Hopkins Unversity in 1982 and 1988. Mr. Penn joined APL in 1980; his work at the Laboratory has involved custom integrated cir­ cuit design, semi-custom design, silicon compiler design, digital de­ sign, programming, and, more re­ cently, microwave design. He left APL in 1990 to work as an applica­ tions engineer for Silicon Compiler Systems, which became part of Mentor Graphics. In 1992, he rejoined the Laboratory in the S2R Group, where he has been designing MMIC'S. Mr. Penn co-teaches a MMIC design course with Craig Moore at The Johns Hopkins University G.W.c. Whiting School of Engineering. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 14, Number 4 (1993)