Research Methods and Design in Commerce and Management: A Comprehensive Guide, Slides of Competition Law and Policy

Download Research Methods and Design in Commerce and Management: A Comprehensive Guide and more Slides Competition Law and Policy in PDF only on Docsity! 2.4 BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS II SEM M.com Presented by Dr. GURUMURTHY K H Asst. Prof. of Commerce & Management Government First Grade College Magadi, Ramanagar (dt) 1 SYLLABUS Module – 1: Research: Meaning, Purpose, Scientific method, types of research; scope of business research. Review of literature: need, purpose, notes taking. Module – 2: Selection and formulation of a research problem, formulation of hypothesis, operational definition of concepts, sampling techniques. Research Design: Meaning, nature, process of preparation, components of research design. Module – 3: Data: Sources of data, methods, of collection; observation interviewing, mailing; tools for collection data; interview schedule, interview guide, questionnaire, rating scale, socio-metry, check list; pre- testing of tools, pilot study. Processing of data; checking, editing, coding, transcription, tabulation, preparation of tables, graphical representation. Module – 4: Analysis of data; Simple statistical techniques and their uses. Testing of Hypothesis, Research Applications – market survey. Report – Writing: Planning report writing work-target audience, type of report, style of writing synoptical outline of chapters; steps in drafting the report 2 Features/Characteristics/quality of Research • The research essentially discovery of new knowledge • It is essentially an investigation • Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions • It is based on observation or experimental evidences. • It learns more about things, people, and events • It related with the solution of a problem • A good research must be systematic, logical, empirical, verifiable and Procedure followed in research must be sufficiently described • It should be carefully recorded and reported 5 Need for Research/Importance of Research/Significance/ Role of Research • The main importance of research is to produce knowledge • Research helps in problem solving • Marketing research is important because it allows consumers and producers to become more familiar with the products, goods, and services around them. • Research is important to society because it allows us to discover more and more that might make are lives easier, more comfortable, and safer • Research encourages interdisciplinary approaches to find solution to problems and to make new discoveries. • Research is a basic ingredient for development and therefore serves as a means for rapid economic development. • It provides basis for government policies • Helps in solving various operational and planning problems of business • It is useful to students, professionals, philosophers, literary men, analysts and intellectuals 6 Purpose / Aims / Objectives of Research • The main purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. • To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered so far. • Aims at advancing systematic knowledge and formulating basic theories about the forces • Research aims to analyse inter-relationships between variables and to derive casual explanation and thus enables us to have a better understanding of the world in which we live. • Try to improve tools of analysis or to test these against the complex human behaviour and institutions. • To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over social behaviour. • To provide an educational program in the accumulated knowledge of group dynamics, in skills of research, in techniques of training leaders and in social action 7 TYPES OF RESEARCH • Research can be classified from Five perspectives: 1) Application of research study 2) Objectives in undertaking the research 3) Inquiry mode employed 4) Conceptual Research and Empirical research 5) Some Other Types Research 10 1) Application of research study there are two broad categories of research: a) Fundamental or Pure or Basic research - It is a research concerning principles or laws or rules. It aims at the achievement of knowledge and truth. It may verify/testing the old theory and hypotheses or establish a new one. It tries to explain the cause and effect relationship in social phenomena. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. It is essentially positive and not normative. This may take the form of the following  Discovery- where a totally new idea or explanation emerges for empirical research e.g Hawthorne experiments  Invention-where new technique or method is created eg. TQM  Reflection- where a existing theory, technique or group of ideas is re-examined possibly in a different organization or social context. Eg Herberg theory of motivation applied to front-line workers in the contract catering sector? 11 (b) Applied Research Applied research is concerned with the solution of particular, problems; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial organization. It is an empirical and practical. It is concerned with applied aspects of life. E.g. Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions Applied research is designed in solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. The goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human conditions. For example  Improve agricultural crop production Treat or cure a specific disease  Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation 12 3) Inquiry Mode- two approaches a) Structured approach/ quantitative research- It involves a collection of numerical data to answer a specific research question. Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that are measurable so that they can be expressed in terms of quantity. the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude? It may involves  Correlation Study-measuring two specific variables and attempting to quantify the relationship that exists between these variables  Ex-post Facto- study-the investigator to determine the specific variables for analysis after the research has been completed.  Longitudinal study- involves choosing a single group of participants and measuring them repeatedly at a selected time intervals to note the changes that occur over time in the specified characteristics for eg. Collecting data with respect to Age and development of children . The investigator identify the specific variable changes through the growth and development.  Meta-analysis- is used to synthesize the large volume of data describing numerous independent variables and there correlation with reference accuracy.. It is undertaken for the purpose of synthesizing extensive amounts of work on a particular subject.  Survey- method of collecting standardized information by interviewing representative sample 15 (b) Unstructured approach/ qualitative research- • Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. Research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude. e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry. Unstructured interview involves- (1) document analysis, (2) particular observation ( ethnographic studies), (3) diaries, (4) case study (5) particular observation (6) focus groups 16 4) Conceptual Research and Empirical Research a) Conceptual Research - Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to interpret existing ones. b) Empirical research- empirical research relies on experience or observation alone. It is data based research coming up with conclusions capable of being verified by observation or experiment. In empirical research, the researcher has to first set up a hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works out to get enough facts to prove or disprove his hypothesis. It improves knowledge and understanding as well as decision making skill and ability. 17 Review of literature • Review of literature pertaining to the current field of investigation mainly aims at critically reviewing and re-examining the earlier conceptual and empirical studies, the major methodological limitation, and direction for further research highlighted by the previous research with a view to identifying and defining the ‘research gap’ to be addressed by the current research study 20 BRM Model-2 Dr. GURUMURTHY K H Asst. Prof. of Commerce & Management Govt. First Grade College, Magadi Ramanagar (Dt) 562120 Syllabus • Module – 2: Selection and formulation of a research problem, formulation of hypothesis, operational definition of concepts, sampling techniques. Research Design: Meaning, nature, process of preparation, components of research design 1. Selection and formulation of a research problem…. Considerations in selecting a research problem are:  Interest,  Magnitude,  Level of expertise,  Relevance,  Availability of data,  Ethical issues. For selecting the correct problem researcher may contact expert, refer library books, discuss with teachers etc. After selecting the correct problem the researcher has to formulate the problem. The Steps in formulation of a research problem are- • Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you. • Dissect the broad area into sub areas. • Select what is of most interest to you. • Raise research questions 2. Extensive Literature Survey Before formulating the research it is desirable that researcher examines all available literature, both conceptual and empirical.  The conceptual literature -is one which deals with concepts and theories.  Empirical literature is that which contains studies made earlier and so it consists of many facts and figures observed in the earlier studies. The source literature are- books, journals, articles and the like, and  Identified the gap of research for future study 3. Developing the objectives Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study. Objective must contain the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish. The objectives should start with words such as  ‘To determine’,  ‘To find out’,  ‘To ascertain’,  “To describe ‘  “To measure’,  ‘To explore’ etc 5. Setting Up Of Hypothesis • Hypotheses is a assumption, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion logically drawn. The research work is conducted to test the truth of this hypothesis 6. Writing a Primary Synopsis • After formulating the problems a brief summary of it should be written down on the topic selected for research work mentioning the summary of what is going to be done under his research 7. Preparing the Research Design • Research design is the conceptual structure or blue print within which research would be conducted. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the consideration of the following : Method of Data Collection to be adopted-There are two types of data 1) Primary Data— Data collected for the first time &original in nature 2) Secondary Data—those which have already been collected and analysed by someone else Source of secondary data are published source books, journals, records etc • Source of information—Sample Design- A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given universe. Sample design refers to the technique or the procedure which the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling/representing/ units from the universe for drawing inferences about the universe. 10.Testing of Hypothesis • Depending upon the nature of data and conclusions to be arrived one or two of these tests can be applied like ANOVA, T-test, F-test, Chi Square test etc. Testing of hypothesis will results in either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis will result in contribution to existing theory or the generation of a new theory 11. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results/thesis • A report is a detailed description of what has been done and how it has been done with respect to a particular area or topic. The report should contain the preliminary section, the main body and the end matter. The preliminary section contains only titles, data, acknowledgement foreword and table of contents. The important section of a report is its main body. It carries introduction, methodology, and statements of findings, conclusions and recommendations. The end matter includes appendix, literature selected and bibliography. The appendix includes letters, questions or other tools used. Bibliography is the list of books, journals. Reports, bulletins etc. used for reference. RESEARCH DESIGN • A research design is a “Blue Print” for collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is a outlines how the research will be carried out. It provides answers to various questions like - What techniques will be used to gather data. What kind of sampling will be used? How, time and cost, constraints be dealt with? Etc. Exploratory research • Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is undertaken to gain background information about the general nature of the research problem. Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the problem and needs additional information or desires new or more recent information. Exploratory research is used in a number of situations:  To gain background information  To define terms  To clarify problems and hypotheses  To establish research priorities • Methods- A variety of methods/categories are available to conduct exploratory research:  Experience Surveys- Issues and ideas may be discussed with persons who have had personal experience in the field  Secondary Data Analysis-background information is existing literature containing data that has been compiled  Case Analysis-obtains information from one or a few situations those are similar to the problem situation. Primary advantage is to investigate in depth and with meticulous attention to detail  Projective techniques; - An indirect means of questioning the respondents. Uses word association tests, sentence completion test, third person test, role playing technique etc Descriptive research • Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers to questions of who, what, where, when, and how – but not why Two basic classifications: Research design- – Cross-sectional studies- measure units from a sample of the population at only one point in time. Samples are drawn in such a way as to be representative of a specific population – Longitudinal studies- repeatedly draw sample units of a population over time. One method is to draw different units from the same sampling frame. Second method is to use a “panel” where the same people are asked to respond periodically Experiments • An experiment is defined as manipulating (changing values/situations) one or more independent variables to see how the dependent variable(s) is/are affected, while also controlling the affects of additional extraneous variables. – Independent variables: - that over which the researcher has control and wishes to manipulate i.e. package size, ad copy, price – Dependent variables: - that over which the researcher has little to no direct control, but has a strong interest in testing i.e. sales, profit, market share. – Extraneous variables: - those that may affect a dependent variable but are not independent variable Experimental Design -An experimental design is a procedure for devising an experimental setting such that a change in the dependent variable may be solely attributed to a change in an independent variable. DATA-SOURCE OF DATA • Data: data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as basis for study and analysis • Methods of data: There are two types of data a. Primary data- Primary data are those data which are collected for the first time and these are in original in character. This data are also called first hand information b. Secondary data- Secondary data are those which have already been collected and used by some other persons. They are usually in the shape of finished products. They are called secondary information Methods of Collecting Primary Data 1) Observation 2) Survey method 3) Interview 4) Experimentation 5) Simulation 6) Questionnaire- (i) Mail survey (ii) Schedule 7) Use of telephone 8) Panel method 9) Projective technique 10) Content analysis 1. Observation • Meaning: Observation is the systematic viewing/watching of specific phenomenon or investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent for gathering primary data for a particular study Example: Watching the life of street-children provides a detailed description of their social life Types of observation 4) Casual and scientific- Casual observation, observing the right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck. Scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement 5) Structured and unstructured- Structured observation works according to a plan. The operations that are to be observed and the various features that are to be recorded are decided well in advance. But in unstructured observation, observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point of study 6) Controlled and Non Controlled observation: Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of some of the external forces. It is carried in laboratory or in the field. Non controlled observations are made in the natural environment and no influence or guidance of any type of external force Advantages& Limitations • Advantages of observation method 1) observing the behaviour in a normal setting 2) Actual or habits of person are observed 3) Obtain information from those who are unable to effectively communicate in written or oral form 4) No better way to gather information than through observation 5) Most reliable method of data collection • Limitations 1) Feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour and infrequent behaviour cannot be observed. 2) expensive method 3) Options and attitudes cannot be obtained by observation 2.Survey method (Scheduling) • Meaning-Survey research also called field research, the investigator/interviewer gathering first hand information by using formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way. This method is suited for gathering descriptive information. • Approaches- – Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and thoughts. E.g. why don’t you eat at MacDonald’s? – Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at MacDonald’s?” • Advantages – collect many different kinds of information – Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method • Limitations – Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about things they consider private – Busy people may not want to take the time – unable to answer because they cannot remember 3. Interview… • Merits of interview method- a) More information can be obtained b) Greater flexibility c) Observation method can be applied d) Group discussions may also be used e) Supplementary information can collect • De-merits of interview method a) Very expensive b) More time consuming c) Basis of interviewer and interviewee 4. Experimental Method- • Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method; it is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment. Such research is characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Researcher must provide working hypothesis. Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis. • Types- – Laboratory experiments- is an investigation conducted in situation created specifically for that purpose – Field experiments-This is an experiment conducted in real life situation in which the experiments manipulate an independent variable in order to test a hypothesis 5. Simulation • Meaning- It is a realistic enactment of roles in an imagined situation. There are three uses; – Assessment of a situation, – understanding a situation and – Decision making in a situation • Types of Simulation – Computer simulation – Man simulation – Man computer simulation Precautions/ Question Wording- Do’s /Criteria/ Construct questionnaires • Question should be Define the Issue-Who, What, When, Where, Why, and Way (The Six Ws). E. g. which brand of shampoo do you use? (Incorrect) Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during the last month? (Correct) – Use Simple Ordinary Words – Use Unambiguous Words – Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions – Avoid Double-barreled Questions-includes two o rmore questions in one – Avoid Implicit Alternatives – Avoid Implicit Assumptions – Avoid Questions that are Based on Presumptions – Avoid Generalizations and Estimates – Avoid long questions. – Avoid very general questions – Avoid questions that include negatives – Avoiding Leading Question/ or Biasing Questions Determining the Order of Questions • Start with easy and interesting questions. • General to specific questions (funnel sequence). • Use filter questions (and prompters). • Ask sensitive or potentially embarrassing questions at the end of the questionnaire • Use alternative phrasings of the same question to yield more accurate total response. Type of Questionnaire… 1) Closed –ended Questionnaire: Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response categories, and respondents are asked to choose among them. E.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions e. g. how many people use a service? 2) Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words. Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but leaves a blank section for the response to write in an answer e.g. what people think about a service 3) Combination of both: Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response. 4) Dichotomous Questions- It has only two response alternatives: E.g Yes or no, agree or disagree, and so on 5) Contingency Question: A survey question is intended for only some respondents determined by their responses to some other questions E.g. do you smoke cigarette?– Yes/ No If yes, how many cigarettes you smoke per day? Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules Sl Schedule Questionnaire 1 A schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the field worker Questionnaires are sent by post to respondent, to answer as specified in the covering letter 2 Schedule is relatively more costly Questionnaire is relatively cheap 3 schedule the response is better since the enumerators clear the doubts of the respondents and get the replies from the respondents at the spot itself Response to the questionnaire is poor. 4 Time consumption is less Time consumption is more 5 personal contact is established with the respondents there is no direct personal contact 6 Schedules can be applied even if the respondents are not literate Questionnaire can be used only if the respondents are literates Collection of Secondary Data Secondary data are those which have already been collected and used by some other persons. They are usually in the shape of finished products. They are called secondary information • Advantages of Secondary data – Less cost: The information can be collected by incurring least cost. – Less time consuming: The time requires for obtaining the information is very less – Large quantity of information: Most of the secondary data are those published by big institutions. So they contain large quantity of information • Disadvantages of Secondary data- – Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s attempt, it need not be suitable for a researcher, who makes use of it – It may be inaccurate and unreliable. – It may contain certain errors. Precautions to be taken before Using Secondary Data & Sources of Secondary Data Precautions – Suitability: - The investigator should satisfy him that the data available are suitable for the enquiry on hand. – Adequacy: - the adequacy of the data should be tested by studying the items covered by the original enquiry and the items to be covered by the enquiry. – Reliability:- The reliability of secondary data should be tested Sources of Secondary Data-There are varieties of published sources from which one can get information for his research work. The important such sources are; – Official report of the central, state and local government. – Official publications of the foreign governments and international bodies like UNO and its subordinate bodies. – Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks, Cooperative Societies and Similar Semi Government and Autonomous Organizations. – Technical journals, News papers, Books, Periodicals, etc – Publications of research Organizations, Centers, Institutes, and reports submitted by Economists, Research scholars etc. Case Study • Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit. The social unit may be a person or a family or an institution or an organization or even a community. It is a method of collecting information and its analysis. It is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object, being studied. • Sources of Case Study The sources from which information are collected in a case study are; 1) Personal documents-They contain the description of the remarkable events of the life of the narrator as well as his reactions towards them. Therefore from these personal documents, one can study the writer’s personality, social relationship and philosophy of life. 2) Life history-Through interviews with a respondent, his life history can be known. This is an objective study in which various events of respondent’s life are studied with an attempt to find their significance for the society Phases of Case Study • The researcher has to select the problem had to study the problem. • The researcher ha to describe the course of events. • Materials about each of the units or aspects are collected. • There are certain factors which are responsible for every event. They must be identified and studied. • The role of the factors responsible for the events is analyzed and conclusions are drawn about the effect of the factors. TECHNIQUE FOR COLLECTION OF DATA • Census: Data collected from each and every unit of population is called census method • Sampling- A few units in the universe or a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole. i.e. instead of studying each and every unit of population only a few (part) unit of population (universe) are studied and conclusion is drawn for entire population is called sampling. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster. • A Sample design -is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population • Sample Unit-Unit in relation to which data are collected. E.g. (a) Geographical-state, district, village etc. (b) Construction unit- House, flat etc (c) Social unit- family, club, school or individual. • Sample size- the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. It is denoted by (n) 2) Systematic Sampling/Fixed interval sampling 2) Systematic Sampling/Fixed interval sampling-The entire list of items of the population are given serial numbers. Thereafter the sample items are selected with equal intervals, then the first unit of a sample is selected randomly and the remaining units at the fixed interval (Kth element) in a given series. In this case, k = (population size/sample size). For example in a population of 25 students in a college under master of commerce studies. The management is going to select 5 students out of 25 then the process is • Starting number: Select the starting number randomly for this purpose researcher can use lottery method taking 1-3 number (k = population size/sample size 25/5=5 is the k th number) • Interval: The researcher picks second number taking interval of k th (k=5) which will serve as the constant difference between any two consecutive numbers in the progression till the sample size. • Selection of Sample- first sample number selected randomly by using lottery method is 3 the second sample is (3+kth i.e. 3+5=8) then and so on. E.g. sample is 3, 8, 13, 18 and so on till sample size of 5 students 3) Cluster Sampling 3) Cluster Sampling-is a sampling technique where the entire population is divided into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All observations in the selected clusters are included in the sample.The most common cluster used in research is a geographical cluster. (E.g. household, income levels, etc) .For example, a researcher wants to survey academic performance of high school students in Ramanagaram district. The process is – Divide in to groups/cluster-First the Research can divide the entire population (high schools of Ramanagaram) into different clusters (taluk). – Select cluster-Then the researcher selects a number of clusters (taluk) through simple or systematic random sampling. – Selected cluster include all the element-Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected Taluk) the researcher can either include all the high school students as subjects or he can select a number of subjects from each cluster through simple or systematic random sampling 4) Stratified Random Sampling 4) Stratified Random Sampling- The researcher divides the entire heterogeneous population into different non- overlapping homogeneous subgroups or strata, and sample items are selected from each stratum (group) randomly, all the units drawn from each stratum is called sample size. The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender, socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and educational attainment. The process is – divide members of the population into homogeneous subgroups (stratum) – The strata should be mutually exclusive (i.e. every element in the population must be assigned to only one stratum) – Then simple or systematic sampling is applied within each stratum – The units drawn from each stratum is called sample size. 6) Area Sampling/ geographical cluster sampling • Area Sampling/ geographical cluster sampling-A method in which the area to be sampled is subdivided into smaller blocks which are selected at random and then sub- sampled or fully surveyed; method is used when a complete frame of reference is not available 2. Non-probability sampling 1) Accidental sampling-It is known as grab or convenience sampling or opportunity sampling. the sample being drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand. That is, sample populations selected because it is readily available and convenient, as researchers are drawing on relationships or networks to which they have easy access. 2) Quota Sampling • Quota Sampling –Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon. The process is – Population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub- groups, – Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. • For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 25 and 40. • The sample is representative of the entire population. It also allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup. Attitude measurement techniques • Attitude measurement techniques- the qualitative variable/information like knowledge, performance, character (feelings, attitude, opinions) etc. must be converted into numerical form for further analysis. This is possible through measurement and scale techniques. • Measurement: - the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of research. The recording of observations may be in the form of numbers or symbols are called measurement. • Scaling: - is the assignment of objects to numbers according to rule. In scaling the objects are text statements, usually statement of attitude, opinion or feeling Scale Classification- Level of Measurement – Nominal scales- Numbers or letters assigned to objects which serve as labels for identification or classification. They are Scales “in name only” for e.g. labelling men as 1 and women as 2. – Ordinal scales-Arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitude in an ordered relationship i.e. Ranking. E.g. rating career opportunities as excellent, good, average poor or very poor. – Interval scales-An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points. For example, Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30 31- 40 etc. – Ratio scale-A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point. The measurement of variables like income, age, time, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40 year old is twice as old as one who is 20 year old – Lickert Scale- Respondents indicate their attitude by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully constructed statements that range from the very positive to the very negative towards the attitudinal object. Individuals generally choose from five alternatives: strongly agree (SA), agree (A), Neutral (N), disagree( DA) and strongly disagree (SDA) E.g. Without Govt. regulation the firms would exploit the customers SA A N DA SDA SOCIO-METRY • A technique for analyzing/quantitative measuring the pattern of relationships among group members- especially hierarchies, friendship networks and cliques . It enable the researcher to get a comprehensive picture structure of social relationship. • Sociometric test- – This is a test under which each member in the group with whom he/she would like to or would not like to engage in some activity that is relevant to the life of the group. for eg. Depending on the character of the group, the members may be asked to indicate whom (from among the other members of the group) he/she would like to be associated or not like to be associated with, in play, studies, problem-solving, dinner, lending and borrowing, etc – What type of interactions among members become the focus of the researcher’s attention depends, besides his objectives, on the nature and functions of the group. Generally, sociometric studies employ observation, questionnaires and interview schedules Editing • Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible • Practical guidelines for editing- While editing care has to be taken to see that the data are as accurate and complete as possible. The following points are to be noted; – The editor should familiarize with the copy of instructions given to the interviewers. – The original entry, if found incorrect, should not be destroyed or erased. On the other hand it should be crossed out in such a manner that it is still eligible – Any, modification to the original entry by the editor must be specifically indicated – All completed schedules must bear signature of the editor and the date – Incorrect answer to the questions can be corrected only if the editor is absolutely sure of the answer, otherwise leave it as such. – Inconsistent, incomplete or missing answers should not be used. • Sure that all numerical answers are converted to same units Coding & Classification • Coding- This process of assigning numerals or symbols to the responses is called coding; It facilitates efficient analysis of the collected data and helps in reducing several replies to a small number of classes. • Classification-a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics depending on the nature of phenomenon involved – Types of classification A. Classification according to external characteristics- this classification, data may be classified either on geographical basis or periodical basis Classifications on geographical basis-In this type of classification, the data that are collected from different places are placed in different classes. E. g District Sales (Rs in lakhs) • Bangalore 400 • Tumkur 250 • Mysore 200 etc Classification on periodical basis (chronological classification)-In this type of classification, the data belonging to a particular time or period are put under one class. This type of classification is based on period. E.g year Sales (Rs In lakhs) • 2016 500 • 2017 400 • 2018 300 B. Classification according to internal characteristics • Classification according to internal characteristics-Data may be classified either according to attributes or according to the magnitude of variables • Classification according to Attributes-In this type data are classified on the basis of common characteristic. E.g descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or numerical such as weight, height, income etc • Simple Classification-If the classification is based on one particular attribute only it is called simple classification. Eg; classification on the basis of sex- Eg population Male female • Manifold Classification-If the classification is based on more than one or several attribute it is called manifold or multiple classifications, in this data are classified in several groups. E.g Population Male Female Married unmarried Married unmarried Literate illiterate Lit illt. Lit. illit. Lit. iilliterate Tabulation • Tabulation-It is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns. It is defined as the “Measurement of data in columns and rows. It is a stage between classification of data and final analysis • Objectives of Tabulation – To clarify the purpose of enquiry – To make the significance of data clear – To express the data in least possible space – To enable comparative study – To eliminate unnecessary data – To help in further analysis of the data • Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. • Simple tabulation :generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data only. • Complex tabulation: usually results on two-way tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data), three –way tables or still higher order tables, also known as manifold tables Parts of a statistical table • Title of the table • Caption or title of the column-It is also termed as “box head”. There may be sub- captions under the main caption. • Stub (row heading)-Stub refers to the title given to rows • Body (main data)-This is the main body of information needed for the research work. • End note (foot note)-This is placed below the table to convey the expansions of abbreviations to caption, stub or main body. • Source note-If the table is based on outside information, it should be mentioned in the source note below Common Descriptive Techniques • Common Descriptive Techniques-The most common descriptive statistics used in research consist of percentages and frequency tables • Percentages-Percentages are a popular method of displaying distribution. Percentages are the most powerful in making comparisons. In percentages, we simplify the data by reducing all numbers in a range of 10 to 100. • Frequency Tables-One of the most common ways to describe a single variable is with a frequency distribution. Frequency distribution can be depicted in two ways, as table or as a graph. If the frequency distribution is depicted in the form of a table, we call it frequency table. If the frequency distribution is depicted in the form of a graph like histogram, cumulative (ogive) etc, we call it frequency graph. • Contingency Tables-A Contingency table shows the relationship between two variables in tabular form. The term Contingency table was first used by the statistician Karl Pearson in 1904. Contingency tables are especially used in Chi- square test.