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Download document document document document document and more Assignments Neuroscience in PDF only on Docsity! KRISLIZZ INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY, INC. Marcins Ave., CHES II, Brgy. Lapidario, Trece Martires City, Cavite THE INNER WORKINGS OF THE MIND; PSYCHOLOGY AND LINGUISTICS Name: Date: Grade & Section: Week: Three First Semester S.Y. 2020-2021 LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Understand the historical development of psychology and linguistics; 2. Identify the subfields under psychology and linguistics; and 3. Explain the importance of these disciplines as fields of study and practice. Socrates, as depicted in Plato's dialogues, often expanded on the Delphic maxim "Know Thyself, because "once we know ourselves, we may learn how to care for ourselves, but otherwise we never shall." Just as we seek to understand the world around us, so should we strive to understand ourselves-examining not only external social structures and phenomena, but also society's inner workings. This chapter introduces you to the disciplines of psychology, the study of behavior and mental processes, and linguistics, which is the study of language systems and their structures. These disciplines seek to find answers to questions and notions such as: Why do people fall in love? Why are there times we feel happy, and times we feel sad? Why are languages so different from each other? Why is it harder to learn a new language the older we get? The work of psychologists and linguists gives us insight into these questions and other concerns. Psychology: Into the Depths of the Human Mind What is love at first sight? It is a trope commonly used in literature, films, and television, but what is it? Is it really possible? Can two individuals really fall in love the very moment they meet each other? According to psychologist Robert Sternberg, love has three components: (1) intimacy, or the feelings of closeness and connectedness that people have for each other; (2) passion, or the drives that lead to romance and physical/ sexual attraction between people; and (3) commitment, or the decision to form and maintain a long-term relationship with someone These three components are the basis of Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love, and he asserts that the presence (or absence) of these components can explain the different types or stages of love that people experience. Following Sternberg's Triangular Theory, love at first sight (also known as infatuated love, or simply infatuation) can occur if we experience intense passion without intimacy and commitment. Infatuation can dissipate just as quickly as it arises, although under certain circumstances, it can last a long time. Analyzing the extensive range of human emotions, including love, is only one of the many facets of psychology. Psychology Defined Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental process definition has three main aspects: science, behavior, and mental process. As a science, psychology is empirical, as it employs methods to obtain objective knowledge through observation. Behavior includes all human actions that are directly observable. Talking to a friend, eating in the cafeteria, and writing a note are examples or behavior. Mental processes, on the other hand, comprise the internal activity of our minds-the thoughts and feelings that we experience within ourselves-which are not directly observable. Thinking and remembering are examples of mental processes. According to psychology professors, Dr Saundra Ciccarelli and Dr J. Noland White (2012), the study of psychology has four goals: description, explanation, prediction, and control. Table 4.1 Goals of psychology as a Scientific Discipline QUESTION BEING ADDRESSED Description What is happening? The first step in understanding a problem; includes observing and documenting behavior- what is happening, where it happens, to whom it happens, why it happens. Explanation Why is it happening Formulating a tentative explanation of the existing problem Prediction Will it happen again? Predicting the likelihood the behavior will be repeated and the conditions under which it is likely to occur Control How can it be changed? Changing or modifying behavior to prevent unwanted outcomes or bring about desirable behavior Source: Ciccarelli, S and White, JN (2012). Psychology. Jurong, Singapore: Pearson Education, Inc. GOAL REMARKS Psychology Through the Years As a formal discipline and science, psychology is fairly young, having been established only in the late 19th century. However, as with the other social sciences, its core concepts- in this case, examining and understanding human behavior and the workings of the human mind-date back to the ancient past. The Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus (c. 460- 370 BCE) believed that everything, including the human soul and mind, is made up of tiny, indivisible particles, which he called atoms. He argued that it is through the movements of these atoms that our minds can make decisions, and that we can perceive the world. On the other hand, Plato postulated that the human soul comprises three parts: the appetitive, which accounts for our bodily desires for food, comforts, pleasure, etc.; the spirited, which accounts. for more abstract desires, such as victory and honor; and the rational, which allows us to think, analyze, and distinguish truth from falsity. The study of the mind and human behavior also has roots in biology. Ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates (c. 460-375 BCE) and Galen (c. 129-216 CE) believed that individual differences in behavior, emotions, and moods were due to four bodily fluids called humors, and that the dominance of one of the humors over the other three caused people to have one of four fundamental personality types: Sanguine- caused by the dominance of blood; associated with vitality, joy, and warmth Phlegmatic- caused by the dominance of phlegm; associated with thoughtfulness, peace and calm, and lethargy. Choleric-caused by the dominance of yellow bile; associated with passion, boldness, and aggression Melancholic caused by the dominance of black bile; associated with prudence, caution, and depression Evolutionary Psychology The study of behavior and how it is influenced by evolution and genetics. Personality Psychology The study of personality and its variations from person to person. Psychology of Women The study of issues and phenomena such as discrimination against women, structural differences in men’s and women’s brains, and causes of violence against women. Social Psychology The study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on social interaction. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Clinical Psychology The evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological problems and disorders. Counseling Psychology The facilitation of personal and interpersonal functioning across the human lifespan. Educational Psychology The study of how human beings learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, and the psychology of teaching. Experimental Psychology The study of how people (and animals) react to sensory stimuli and perceive Health Psychology The Application of psychology to health care, well-being, and illness. Human Factor Psychology The study of how cognitive and psychological process affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. Industrial/Organizational Psychology The application of psychology to improve, evaluate, and predict the job performance of employees; the study of how work organizations impact and interact with individuals. Legal Psychology The application of psychology to the legal system and the people involved in it. School Psychology The use of psychology to diagnose and address the needs of the youth in the context of the education system. Sports Psychology The application of psychology to athletic activities and exercise. Linguistics: The Marvels of Human Language The Book of Genesis in the Bible tells the story of a time when the whole world had but one group of people, with only one language. They came upon a plain in the land or Shinar (Mesopotamia) and decided to settle there. They built a city, and decided to build a tower that would reach the heavens, "to make a name for [themselves]" and so they would not be scattered over the face of the earth. This displeased God, and so God confused the people s language so they could not understand each other, and they could not finish building the city and the tower and then God did precisely what the people had feared: He scattered them over the face of the earth. The unfinished tower was hence known as the Tower of babel or the Tower of Confusion. Apart from attempting to explain the variations in human language, the Babel myth shows that language is more than merely a system of words. Language is a means of communication which can be used to achieve goals beyond the capabilities of any individual, requiring a communal effort; language can provide a sense of identity and unity between speakers of a common tongue; it can also reflect the culture, historical background, and systems of meaning of the people who speak it. These and many other aspects of language are the focus of linguistics. Defining Linguistics The commonplace definition given by most introductory books to linguistics is that it is the study of language. This definition is vague and incomplete, if not problematic. By such a definition, anyone who studies native or foreign languages for the sake of gaining fluency in them can qualify as a practitioner of linguistics. Also, linguistics is not the only field that studies language. Acoustic physics, for example may be concerned with the sounds of human language. The interpretation of language in legal texts is of particular interest in jurisprudence. Even mathematics, which sheds light on the theoretical interpretation of algebraic formulae, is interested in language dynamics. To resolve this dilemma, we will define linguistics as the theoretical study of the lingual aspect of language. By lingual, we mean that language is associated with the interpretation and understanding of signs. As a field, it aims to investigate the knowledge of language, the acquisition of knowledge, and language processing. Linguistic Through the Years Linguistics is a discipline founded in antiquity. In ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest linguistic texts were written on clay tablets. Some of these texts provided list of nouns in the Sumerian language. In the third millennium BCE. The Akkadian people gained political influence in the Mesopotamian region, and use of the Akkadian language spread. Some texts from this period were lists of Sumerian words with Akkadian translations. In ancient India, mastery of Sanskrit was of great importance, as religious texts were written in this language. Panini (c. 500 BCE) was known as the best grammarian in Sanskrit, and his grammatical tradition focused on rules of word formation and phonetics. The ancient Greeks and Romans viewed the study of language as a philosophical endeavor. Treatises were written on the relationship between language and thought e origin ot language, and other theoretical concepts about language. Dionysius Thrax (C. 100 BCE) penned what is now considered the first grammar book of a European language. His Techne Grammatike contains a brief exposition of the Greek language. Varro (16-27 BCE) published a voluminous work on Latin grammar. Centuries later, Apolonius Dyscolus (110-175 CE) would expound more on Greek syntax. Donatus (C. 4th Century CE) and P'riscan (c. 6th century CE) specialized in Latin grammar and were greatly influential until the Middle Ages. The prominence of Latin reached its zenith in the Middle Ages in Europe, and it became the primary oral and written language at the time. Grammar books aiming to teach Latin to native speakers were subsequently published. Roger Bacon (1214/20-1292) observed in his book Sunmma Grammatica that all languages have commonalities in their grammar, though they may have some variations. This was a precursor to what would become the theory of universal grammar. With the rise of European colonization in the 15th century, the Europeans became acquainted with the languages of their colonies, including Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific. Chroniclers of expeditions, missionaries, and colonial officials gathered information about the various local languages and disseminated the information throughout Europe. The availability of this information afforded opportunities languages. They compiled vocabulary lists in a wide variety of languages. in doing so, they found out that certain languages were related. Andreas Jager (1660-1750) believed that the mother language of all languages in Europe and some parts of Asia originated from the Caucasus mountains. William jones (1746- 1794) discovered the similarities between Asian and European language systems and was later credited with founding the field of comparative linguistics. Rasmus Rask (1787-1832), a Danish linguist, devised a system of principles used in studying the relatedness of languages. Soon, more scholars demonstrated interest in the analysis of language systems using the comparative method. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a shift in the subject matter of linguistics, From investigating changes in languages throughout history, the focus was on the study of language as a structured system situated at a particular point in time Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, was considered the founding pioneer of modern linguistics, having contributed to this change of interest. His ideas consolidated through the publication of Cours de Linguistique Generale (Course in General Linguistics) in 1916. Saussure was among the first to propose that language is a system of were arbitrary signs. The study of linguistics diversified as time went on. An influential group in modern linguistics is the Prague School, or the P'rague Linguistic Circle, founded in 1926 in what is now the Czech Republic. The Prague School is best remembered for its contributions to phonology and the development of syntax as an area of interest tor linguistic study. In the United Kingdom, the London School became prominent for challenging established notions in linguistics in the 1900s, like the assumption that speech is composed of segments of sounds combined one after the other. Another linguistic tradition, the Copenhagen School, was founded in Denmark by Louis Hjemslev (1889-1965) and Viggo Brondial (1887-1942), and later joined by the likes of Eli Fischer-Jorgensen (1911-2010) and Hans Uldall (1907- 1957). Hjemslev and Uldall developed glossematics, a linguistic approach that focuses on relationships between the smallest units of language. In the United States, Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) was the first to advocate the inclusion of linguistics into the sciences. Since the mid-20th century, Noam Chomsky has been greatly influential in mainstream linguistics and father of modern linguistics. His Syntactic Structures strengthened the foothold of formal linguistics in the United States. Grammar is regarded as a formal system of rules, which is to be observed in 8enerating grammatical sentences in a particular language. Methods Employed Linguists believe that human languages are systems that integrate various aspects of reality into a naturally founded and socially and culturally functioning communication system. They take into consideration factors such as: 1. Physical aspects: phonetics, measure and identify voices and sounds; 2. Biological aspects: speech organs, brain; 3. Psychological aspects: processes, models of production, memory, planning, comprehension; and 4. Social aspects: conventions, means of communication and how they arise, and how they are preserved or modified. In terms of data collection, linguists use a variety of methods which include data registration, participant observation or ethnomethodology, literature studies, and linguistic language interviews, among others. Some of the methods used by linguists for primary data analysis are transcription and automatic analysis. As for secondary data analysis, linguists use coding and interpretation, content analysis, and source criticism. Linguistics and its Subdisciplines Aside from addressing practical concerns like language literacy and translation, linguistics as an academic discipline has expanded through the development of different areas of interest that scholars can specialize in. The branches of linguistics can be divided into four sub-areas: aspects of language, level of analysis, commitment to general assumptions, and interdisciplinarity. The table below summarizes these fields.