Environmental Movement Historical Influences, Exams of Nursing

Download Environmental Movement Historical Influences and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! 2 DP1 Quick Revision Notes-Latest Update .Guaranteed Success (Best Rated) 1 Distinguish | Make clear the differences between | Distinguish between the concept of a Your answer should consist of more than two two or more concepts or items. “charismatic” (flagship) species anda parate descriptions itis essential that you keystone species using named emphasize the differences between them, and, examples. [4] inthis question, provide named examples. Estimate | Obtain an approximate value With reference to Figure ? (b), estimate Use the scale provided on the graph/esource the average annual inctease in gross domestic | towork out the approximate value ofthe product (GOP) between 1990 and 2012. [1] change. Identify Provide an answer from anumber Identify four waysin which solar energy Onlya brief answer is needed here — of possibilities. reaching vegetation may be lost from an sometimes you may have to select from a list. ecosystem before it contributes to the biomass of herbivores. [4] Interpret | Use knowledge and understanding _| Interpret the likely impact of the rise of Use knowledge and understanding to outline to recognize trends and draw atmospheric CO, on global sea levels. [2] the effects of changes in the natural and conclusions from given information. human environment. Outline Give brief account or summary. Outline how four different factors influence the | Your answer should consist of brief statements resilience ofan ecosystem. [4] — itis unlikely that there will be many marks available for an “outline” question. Command terms for objectives 3 and 4 Term | Definition Sample question Analyse Break down in order to bringout With refence to the data presented inthe the essential elements resource booklet, analyse the global ecological orstructure. value of Mongolia. [6] Comment | Give ajudgmentbased on agiven Comment on the relationship between statementor result ofa calculation Compare and | Give an account of similarities and population growth and food supply. [2] Compate and contrast the impact of hurnans, How to be prepared torn the data provided show the ways in which the subject (Mongolia) has a global ecological significance. You should reach a conclusion as to whether there is/is nota relationship between the variables, and whether it's positive or negative. For bath cycles: contrast differences between two (ar more) on the carbon and nitrogen cucles. [7] * Describe and explain the similarities items or situations, referring to fonngare) both (all] of them throughout. * Describe and explain the differences {contrast} * Creatinga table (plan) for your compare’ contrast response may ensure that you answer all components of the question. © Conclude by reviewing the relative similarities and differences. Construct Display information ina Construct a diagram to show how positive _| This may involve boxes and arrows or could diagrammatic or logical form feedback process involving methane may be a flow diagram. Itis very important that affect the rate of global warming [2] your construction is clear, and that the text is explanatory, Deduce Reach a conclusion from the Deduce, giving reason, whetherthe figure | Your answer must state the conclus information given Demonstrate | Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or practical application below could represent the transfer of energy in a terrestrial ecosystem. [1] Demonstrate the higher ecological footprint (EF) associated with MEDCs compared with LEDCs. [2] reached, The answer requires examples to show the EF from named MEDCs and LEDCs and some reasoning forthe greater use of the world’s resources by wealthier societies. Derive Manipulate a mathematical Using the crude birth rate and crude death rate, | Crude birth and death rates are given in rates relationship to give anewequation | derive the natural increase for the selected per thousand, whereas natural increase is cr relationship. populations. [1] given in rates per hundred (percent) soa conversicn/manipulation of the data must be conducted to derive the answer. Be careful to read the units carefully Design Produce a plan, simulation Design a conservation area forthe protection | Design a reserve using appropriate criteria or model, of a named species. [3] such as: size, shape, edge effects, corridors and proximity to other reserves. Determine Obtain the only possible answer. With reference to Figure 3, determine the You should have a precise figure ~ remember cereal yield in the UK in 1993. [1] to include the units Discuss Offera considered and balanced —_ Discuss the implications of environmental You must consider different environmental review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported byappropiiate evidence. value systems in the protection of tropical biomes. [9] value systems so that you cover at least two sides of the issue  Carnucopian ~ a technocentrist who believes that continued progress and providing material items for humanity can be achieved through continued advances in technology ¢ Environmental manager — an anthropocentrist who believes that humans should manage natural systems for economic profit © Self-reliance soft ecalagist — an anthropocentrist who. believes that communities should play an active role in environmental issues * Intrinsic value — refers to the intangible importance of a species or ecosystem, for example the aesthetic, ethical, spiritual or ecological value & Figure 1.1.4 Rachel Carson >> Assessment tip You may be asked to explain the role of historical influences in shaping the development of the environmental movement. Your answers need to describe the personality or event, explain how it has influenced the movement, and explain exactly what gave rise to the influence. * international agreements (e.g. the UN Rio Earth Summit in 1992, which produced Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration) * technological developments (e.g. the Green Revolution ~ a time m the mid-20th century when developments in scientific research and technology in farming led to increased agricultural productivity worldwide). These events led to the development of environmental pressure groups. Media coverage increased and that raised public awareness of the issues. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring In 1962 American biologist Rachel Carson’s (figure 1.1.1) influential book Silent Spring was published. Carson wrote about the harmful effects of synthetic pesticides and made a case against the chemical pollution of natural systems. She focused on the activities of chemical companies and explained the impact of use of insecticides on birds of prey. The book led to widespread concerns about the usc of pesticides in crop production and the consequent pollution of the natural environment (mainly terrestrial systems). It also contributed to widespread awareness amongst the American public of key environmental issues, and was a focal point for the environmental movements of the 1960s, inspiring many other environmentalists to take action. The book led to a ban on DDT for agricultural uses and inspired the formation of the US Fnvironmental Protection Agency. The Club of Rome In 1972 a global body of experts called the Club of Rome published The Limits to Growth. The group contained academics, civil servants, diplomats and industrialists and first met in Rome. ‘The report examined the consequences of a rapidly growing world population on finite natural resources. The Limits fo Growth encouraged scientists, policy-makers and. the public to see ecological problems in planctary terms, intrinsically linked to human population growth. Ithas sold 30 million copies in more than 30 translations and has become the best-selling environmental book in history (source: http:/ /np4sd.org /nominees /club-of-rome/). Bhopal On 3 December 1984, the Union Carbide pesticide plant in the Indian city of Bhopal released 42 tonnes of toxic methyl isocyanate gas. The release happened when one of the tanks involved with processing the gas overheated and burst. Some 500,000 people were exposed to the gas. It has been estimated that between 8,000 and 10,000 people died within the first 72 hours following exposure, and that up to 25,000 have died since from gas-related disease (source: https:/ / www independent co.uk /news /world /asia/ poisoned-legacy-of-bhopal-campaigners-call- on-dow-chemical-to-answer-criminal-charges-31-years-alter-a6779231. html) (figure 1.1.2). The disaster showed that enforceable international standards for environmental safety were needed, as well as urgent strategies to prevent similar accidents happening in the future. Chernobyl On 26 April 1986, a nuclear reactor at the Chernobyl plant in the Tibraime ovnindad Acland af hichly radinactve wae cant intn the 2 6 Belarus and Russia were badly contaminated. The disaster resulted in the evacuation and resettlement of over 336,000 people. The fallout caused increased incidence of cancers in the most exposed areas. An area around the plant still remains a no entry area due to radiation. The incident raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power stations. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster On I March 2011 an earthquake in north-eastern Japan led to a tsunami that flooded the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (figure 1.1.3). Tt was the biggest nuclear disaster since Chernobyl Estimates vary about the number of people affected by the disaster, although it is estimated that around 600 deaths may have been caused by the evacuations following the earthquake and tsunami (source: http: / /emilkirkegaard.dk/en/wp-content/uploads/ Worldwide-health-effects-of-the-Fukushima-Daiichi-nuclear- accident. pdf). The disaster has led to increased public pressure to phase out nuclear power generation. For example, Germany has accelerated plans to close nuclear reactors, and over 90% of Italy's population voted against government plans to expand nuclear power. Switzerland has also decided to phase out nuclear power. Our Common Future In 1987, a report by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) was published. The report was called Our Common Tuture. It linked environmental concerns to development and aimed to promote sustainable development through international collaboration. It also placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda. UN’s Earth Summit The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the WCED led to the UN’s Earth Summit at Rio in 1992. The summit’s message was that a change in our altitudes and behaviour towards environmental issues was required to bring about the necessary changes. The conference led to the adoption of Agenda 21, which is a blueprint for action to achieve sustainable development worldwide. Environmental value systems (EVSs) Environmental value systems determine a personal viewpoint and how a person responds to environmental issues. Personal viewpoints depend on many different factors. Factors include social influences, personal characteristics, habits and knowledge of environmental issues. Personal characteristics and social influences help to determine, for example, personal views of global warming. If somebody is determined, and their parents and friends are environmentally active, they are more likely to take responsibility for solving issues surrounding climate change and try to make a real difference, e.g. trying to reduce energy consumption and using a bike rather than have a lift to college. Fducation will also determine a person’s VS, ‘They may have read about environmental issues in newspapers and books, such as Six Degrees by Mark Lynas, which examines how temperature increase will affect planet arth The options available to a person also affect how they respond to environmental issues. If someone lives in a city that provides a convenient recycling procedure, they are more likely to recycle than 7 A Figure 1.1.2 Victims of the Bhopal tragedy during a rally to mark the 26th year of the Bhopal Gas Disaster, in Bhopal, India on 3 December 2010 ® Figure 1.1.3 Cleaning up after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster PTET a In the range of historical influences selected, it is beneficial to have both local and global examples. Further possible examples of historical influences could include: James Lovelock'’s development of the Gaia hypothesis; whaling; Gulf of Mexico oil spill of 2010; Chipko movement; Rio Earth Summit 2012 (Rio+20); Earth Day; Copenhagen Accord. You can also research and find out about any recent orlocal events that are of interest to you. ¢ Content link EVSs are explored throughout the course, for example in section 7.2, in relation to the subject of climate change. etry ras ceo EVS: Environmental value systems are a key concept and are discussed in each topic of the ESS syllabus. bee ae) Itcan be argued that technology is a tool which cannot, on its own, solve any problem; there has to be political will to make changes and then technology can help to provide solutions. p> na) You need to be able to discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic value. Intrinsic value means that something has value in its own right, i.e. inbuilt/inherent worth. policies and by persuading individuals of the intrinsic value of all organisms irrespective of monetary worth. Ecocentrists would argue the value of diversity for ecological stability. Ecocentric solutions can focus on localized areas of conservation, including whole habitats or ecosystems, which can generate community support and involvement. However, conservation can be costly, with little economic return, and so can be unpopular with nations seeking economic development. Intrinsic values of the biosphere Nature can be seen as having an intrinsic value. ‘This means that the natural world has integral worth independent of its value (e.g. economic considerations) to anyone or anything else, such as the belief that all life on Earth has a right to exist. Intrinsic values include those based on cultural and aesthetic values. CMa les Essay Ni Explain the role of two historical influences in shaping the development of the environmental mavement. [?] Haw do | approach this question? There is one mark available for correctly identifying two historical influences, with a maximum of 4 marks for each explanation of how historical influences shaped the development of environmentalism, up to maximum of 7 marks (i.e. if 4 marks are awarded for the first example, up to a maximum of 3 marks can be awarded for the second example). Credit is given for valid statements that describe the event, explaining how it has influenced the movement and exactly what gave rise to the influence. 10 xX 1.2 SYSTEMS AND MODELS © System — an assemblage of parts and the relationships between them, which together constitute an entity or whole © Open system — a system in which both matter and energy are exchanged with its surroundings (for example, natural ecosystems) © Closed system —a systern in which energy, but not matter, is exchanged with its surroundings (for example, the Earth) * Isalated system — asystem that exchanges neither matter nor energy with its surroundings (for example, the Universe as far as we know) * Model — a simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of an object, system or concept Asystems approach should be taken forall of the topics covered in the ESS course and you should be able to apply the systems approach to each topic you cover. You should be able to interpret given system diagrams and use data to produce your own, for example to show carbon cycling, food production and soil systems. Dead Systems diagrams should always be in the same format, with storages (boxes) linked by arrows (flows). They should be keptas visually simple as possible (figure 1.2.1) You should be able to show how systems and models can help in the study of complex environmental issues ¥ Environmental issues can be studied using the systems approach. Systems can be shown in diagrammatical form v Transfers and transformations represent different movements of matter and energy in systems. Systems can be open, closed or isolated. & Models can be used to understand how systems work. The systems approach The systems approach emphasizes the similarities between environmental systems, biological systems and human-made entities such as transport and communication systems. This approach stresses that there are concepts, techniques and terms that can be transferred from one discipline (such as ecology) to another (such as economics). All systems have inputs and outputs. According to the system, these can be inputs and outputs of energy, matter or information. All systems also have storages, flows, processes and feedback mechanisms. The systems method allows different areas of study, such as ESS and economics for example, to be looked at in the same way and for connections to be made between them. An example of a system is a community of trees in a woodland. A communily of Lees in a woodland has the following features of a system: + Individuals or species of trees are the components of the system * The components are interrelated. ¢ The components form an integrated whole, for example they may regulate populations through competition and contribute to succession of community. * [thas flows (ic. transfers) of matter and energy between components (i.e. storages). For example, leaf fall provides nutrients to other trees through decomposition; glucose is transported from leaves to insects that eat the leaves and to other parts of the forest via litter-fall. * Components carry out processes. Processes include photosynthesis, respiration and growth. * Itis an open system exchanging matter and energy with surroundings. Systems diagrams Systems can be shown in diagrams, where boxes indicale storages or matter and energy. Arrows indicate flows between the given storages. Processes can be labelled on arrows, referring to different transfer or transformation processes. Transfer processes flow through a system 11 2 12 * Any model is only as good as the data that is used in it. In addition, the data put into the model may not be reliable. DD Cea) * Models rely on the expertise of the people making them and this You need to be able to evaluate can lead to inaccuracies. the use of models. * Different people may interpret madels in different ways and so come to different conclusions. People who would gain from the results of the models may use them to their advantage. Sar | Essay Explain how a community of trees in a woodland may be considered a system. [?] How do | approach this question? The question asks you to apply your knowledge of systems. The answer needs to explain howa community of trees can be considered a system, and not the entire woodland ecosystem. One mark will be awarded for each correct suggestion, up to a maximum of 7 marks. To plan the answer, consider all the different features that make up a system, such as storages and feedback mechanisms, and say how these apply to a tree community. The answer can also define what a system is, and say what type of system a community of trees would be. 15 1.3 © Entropy — a measure of the amount of disorder, chaos or randomness in a system; the greater the disorder, the higher the level af entrapy, Entropy increases ina system © Equilibrium — a state of balance among the components ofa system © Stable equilibrium — tendency ina system far it to return toa previous equilibrium condition following disturbance (as opposed to unstable equilibrium) © Steady-state equilibrium — the condition of an open system in which there are no changes over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations in the very short term. There are continuing inputs and outputs of matter and energy, but the system as a whole remains ina more or less constant state (for example, a climax ecasystem) © Feedback — when part of the output from a system returns as an input, so as to affect subsequent outputs ® Positive feedback — feedback that increases change; it promotes deviation away from an equilibrium and drives the system towards a tipping paint where a new equilibrium is adopted © Negative feedback — feedback that tends to counteract any deviation fram equilibrium, and promotes stability * Tipping point — the minimum amount of change within a system that will destabilize it, causing itto reacha new equilibrium or stable state Oe ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIA You should be able to show the role of energy and equilibria in the regulation of systems: The first law of thermodynamics concerns the conservation of energy, and the second law explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy in systems. Negative feedback stabilizes systems whereas positive feedback moves them further away from equilibrium. The resilience of a system is its tendency to maintain stability, thereby avoiding tipping points where a now siate of equilibrium is reached. ‘The size of storages within systems, and their diversity, contributes to the resilience of systems Ina stable equilibrium, there is a tendency in ecological systems to retum to the original equilibrium following disturbance, and in steady-state equilibrium there are fluctuations around equilibrium but with no overall change. Desig) You will need to understand the relationships between resilience, stability, equilibria and diversity — emphasis should be put on these interrelationships as you study this part of the course. The laws of thermodynamics ‘The first law of thermodynamics is known as the law of conservation of energy. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed: it can only be changed from one form into another. This means that the total energy in any system is constant and all that can happen is that energy can change form. ‘The second law of thermodynamics states that the transfer of energy through a system is inefficient and that energy is transformed into heat. This means that less energy is available to do work and the system becomes increasingly disordered. In an isolated system, entropy increases spontancously. Pes at) The first law of thermodynamics (the law of conservation of energy} states that energy entering a system equals energy leaving it (energy can neither be created nor destroyed), whereas the second law states that energy in systems is gradually transformed into heat energy due to inefficient transfer, increasing disorder (entropy). 16 The implications of the laws of thermodynamics for ecological systems Energy is needed in ecosystems to create order, such as to hold complex molecules together. Natural systems cannot be isolated because there must always be an input of energy for work to replace energy that is dissipated. The maintenance of order in living systems needs a constant input of energy to replace that lost as heat through the inefficient transfer of energy. One way energy enters an ecosystem is as sunlight. Transfer of energy by producers is inefficient due to the inefficient transfer of energy in photosynthesis (the second law of thermodynamics). Sunlight energy is changed into biomass by photosynthesis, ie. photosynthesis captures sunlight energy and transforms it into chemical energy. Chemical energy in producers may be passed along food chains as biomass, or given off as heat during respiration. The energy entering the system equals the energy leaving it (the first law of thermodynamics). Available energy is used to do work such as growth, movement, and making complex molecules. The transformation and trans{er of usable energy is not 100% efficient (the second law of thermodynamics), whenever energy is converted there is less usable energy at the end of the process than at the beginning. This means that there is a dissipation of energy which is then not available for work. The total amount of energy in a system does not change but the amount of available energy for work does change All energy eventually leaves the ecosystem as heat. No new energy has been created; it has simply been transformed and passed from one form to another. Heat is released because of the inefficient transfer of energy. Although matter can be recycled, energy cannot, and once it has been lost from a system in the form of heat energy, it cannot be made available again. Because the transfer and transformation of energy are inefficient, food chains tend to be short Equilibrium ‘There is a tendency in systems to return to the original equilibrium, rather than adopting a new one, following disturbance. In forests, for example, insect populations increase and decrease and trees dic and grow, but overall the forest remains the same (this is known as steady-state equilibrium; sec figure 1.3.3). In these cases, disturbance will lead to a return to the original equilibrium (it is said to be “stable”; figure 1.3.1), When a system adopts a new equilibrium. following disturbance this is known as “unstable” equilibrium (see figure 1.3.2). Disturbance System state Time A Figure 1.3.1 Stable equilibrium (where disturbance to the system results in it returning to its original equilibrium) 17 ¢ Resilience — the tendency of an ecological or social system to avoid tipping points and maintain stability © Diversity — can be defined as “the variety of life”, although the meaning depends on the context inwhichitis used [i.e. can refer to species, habitat or genetic diversity) Cea | You need to be able to explain the implications of the first and second law of thermodynamics for ecological systems. Pe ea) Light energy starts the food chain but is then transferred from producer to consumers as chemical energy. D> ea You need to be able to apply the first and second laws of thermodynamics to energy transformations and the maintenance of order in living systems. 2 CY Bo 3 > x fone) EQUILIBRIUM: This is a key conceptand as such itis explored through the ESS syllabus. isturbance system state | Time © Figure 1.3.2. Unstable equilibrium [where disturbance results in a new equilibrium very different from the first}  = Content link The role of positive feedback in climate change is examined in section 7.2. You need to be able to discuss resilience ina variety af systems, both ecological and societal. & Content link Food chains, and how they can be used as a model to indicate flows of energy and matter in ecosystems, are discussed in section 2.2. S Content link Climax communities are discussed in section 2.4. Duis Human threats themselves do not affect resilience directly, because resilience is the inherent property of the system to resist threats (tied up in its storages, diversity and so on) and the degree of threat will not change this. However, human activities that diminish the inherent resilience of the system by reducing its storages and diversity will change the resilience af the system You should be able to refer to examples of human impacts and relate these to possible tipping points. For example, increases in CO, levels above a certain value would lead to.an inerease in global mean temperature, causing melting of the ice sheets and permafrost. Reaching such a tipping point could cause the melting of Himalayan mountain glaciers and a lack of freshwater in many Asian societies. Test yourself 1.7 Outline what is meant by a tipping point [1] 1.8 Suggest one social and one ecological impact that mightarise from the equilibrium shift in the Great Barrier Reef system 2] Resilience and diversity of systems Systems that have complex interrelationships between the different components are more stable and therefore less likely to reach a tipping point than simpler systems (figure 1.3.8). For example, when considering an ecosystem: * If there are several food chains that contain many interconnected food webs then it is inherently more stable than one with fewer food chains because loss of individual species will leave many more food chains to support the overall structure of the system. ¢ ‘The greater the diversity, the greater the resilience of the system. Greater diversity implies more complexity (ie. many niches), which leads to a greater resistance to change. © Similarly, systems with larger storages, e.g. natural resources (biomass, nutrients, water, etc) will be more resilient than those with smaller storages. Large storages confer abundant supplies of key resources to support the ecosystem. * Mature communities, such as those found in climax communities, will have larger storages and more developed nutrient cycles and food webs, adding to the resilience of the ecosystem. ¢ The presence of negative feedback mechanisms increases the resilience of systems and returns them towards equilibrium Steady-state equilibrium, where there is a balance of inputs and outpuls, will lead to stability. Human activities which reduce the size of storages (e.g. removing timber from forest ecosystems) or reducing the complexity of interactions, c.g. food webs, will reduce the resilience of a system. This applies to both ecological and social systems. Social systems that have fewer complex connections are less stable than those that have robust social interactions. New system state A Figure 1.3.8 The rale of resilience in avoiding tipping points 20 PS Increase in international tourists —- Morea eeu ny Increase in building of hotels, accommodation, food, entertainment and sightseeing Y roads and facilities for tourism Increase in jobs within hotels, restaurants, food production, construction industry + Workers have more money to spend on food, clothes, entertainment; increase in tax revenues More funds from taxes to soend on infrastructure and services, roads and public transport Growth in industries to meet demand for increased goods and services A Figure 4 Tourism multiplier effect Questions a] Outline how the model shown in figure 1 demonstrates positive feedback. (2) b) Identify four characteristics of ecosystems that contribute to their resilience. (4) How do | approach these questions? a] You must use information in the figure to answer this. Answers that simply define positive feedback will not be credited. Two marks are available and so two different paints must be made. b) The command term “identify” requires you to pravide an answer from a number of different possibilities. There will be many different aspects of an ecosystem that will contribute to its resilience; you need to select four One mark will be awarded for each correct characteristic identified. Answers should not simply state that ecosystems have “storages” or “tipping points” because all systems have these. Simply stating “biodiversity”, however, is. acceptable because itis inherently quantitative. Points that refer to low human interference etc will not be credited. 21  1.4 SUSTAINABILITY * Sustainability —the use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use * Natural capital —a term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural income of goads or services © Natural income — the yield obtained from natural resources * Goods — marketable commodities exploited by humans You should be able to show an understanding of how sustainability and sustainable development can be achieved and monitored Sustainability refers to the use of resources ata rate that allows for natural regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment. v Ecosystems provide life-supporting services and goods. v Natural capital is natural resources that produce a sustainable natural income, where natural income refers to the yield obtained from natural capital. v Factors such as pollution, biodiversity, population or climate can be used as environmental indicators to assess sustainability. ¥ The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) plays a role in assessing the world’s ecosystems and the services, and ways in which they can be conserved and used sustainably. Environmental Impact Assessments (ELAs) provide information on the environmental effects of development projects. Ecological footprints (FFs) provide an index to measure sustainability. 22 Regulating services: * These are a diverse set of services and include pollination, regulation of pests and diseases, and production of goods, such as food, fibre and wood. © Other services include dimate and hazard regulation and water quality regulation. Cultural services: * These are derived from places where people interact with nature, providing cultural goods and benefits. * Open spaces ~ such as gardens, parks, rivers, forests, lakes, the seashore and wilderness - provide opportunities for outdoor recreation, learning, spiritual well-being and improvements to human health. Test yourself 1,10 State two regulating services that mountains, moorlands and heaths provide [2] 1.14 Suggest two likely cultural services supplied by urban ecosystems [2] 1.12 State supporting services from enclosed farmland. [2] Indicators of sustainability Tt is possible to assess whether a country or society is functioning in a sustainable way by using specific indicators. These indicators provide a measure by which a society can be compared to others. They can also be used to assess whether the country or society is following a pathway of sustainable development. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) In 2000 the UN initiated a consultation exercise that ultimately led to the launch of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in 2001. Tt wasa large study to assess knowledge in this area and to reach agreement, involving both social and natural scientists. The aims of the MA were to improve the decision-making process relating to ecosystem management, with a view to improving human well-being. The MA was also developed to inform and improve future scientific assessments of this kind. The main findings of the MA were as follows: * Humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively in 50 years between 1950 and 2000 than in any similar period in human history. The changes are primarily due to meeting rapidly growing demands for resources such as food, fresh water, timber and fucl. The efiect of this disturbance has led to a large, irreversible loss of biodiversity. * Economic development and human well-being resulting from ecosystem change have been achieved at the cost of degradation of many ccosystem services, increased risk of tipping points being reached, and the increase of poverty for some individuals or socicties. Unless these problems are addressed, there will be a significant reduction in the benefits future generations can obtain fram penavetom 25 I Content link The United Nations identified the need to coordinate countrywide approaches to sustainable developmentat the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The Rio Earth Summit is discussed in section 1.1. PCa) You need to be able ta discuss how environmental indicators suchas MA can be used to evaluate the progress of a project to increase sustainability. You need to be able to evaluate the use of EIAs in assessing sustainable development. SS Content link The concepts of red-listed species and keystone species are covered in sections 3.3 and 3.4 respectively. You are not expected to explore an environmental impact assessment (ElA] in depth, but ratherto focus on the principles of theiruse. SSS Test yourself 1.13 Outline possible limitations of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA]. [4] ~ Ss Content link The ecological footprint is discussed in detail in section 8.4 eee ou uit) You need to be able to explain the relationship between ecological footprint and sustainability, * Significant changes to institutions, practices and policies will be needed to address the challenges highlighted by the MA (ie. reversing ecosystem degradation while meeting the increased needs for global resources). There are many options for cnhancing, or conserving ecosystem services in ways which need to be considered and implemented. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is carried out before any major development project. An FIA is an evaluation of the current ecosystem or environment and likely impacts from the development. An EIA estimates change to the environment that occurs as a result of a project, and helps to decide whether the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. An EIA is designed to protect the local environment in the following ways. Baseline study: © This provides an inventory of social and cultural aspects, keystone and red-listed species, and unique habitats that are of particular value. * Itcan help to focus, organize and prioritize protective strategies. Assessment of potential social and ecological impacts and benefits: © This provides a holistic evaluation, 1. taking all factors into account. * Itallows input from all stakeholders. * By comparing the development to similar projects (already executed), the validity of the EIA is increased. Recommendations/ mitigations: ¢ These are designed to limit impact and protect the environment. ¢ The EIA report is a public document, so the public can respond to the report, leading to recommendations: © This recommends changes to the development, with modified construction techniques, which mitigate potentially damaging environmental impacts, for example. In some countries the EIA is advisory while in others it is compulsory and so may determine the implementation of mitigation strategies. It is dependent on effective enforcement. Ecological footprint (EF) An ecological footprint is the area of land and water required to support a defined population at a given standard of living. Ecological footprints greater than the biocapacity of a country (ie. the ability of a biologically productive area to generate sustainable supply of resources) indicate unsustainability. Test yourself 1.14 Compare ecocentric and technocentric approaches to reducing an ecological footprint. [4] 1.15 Explain how developments in technology may increase or decrease the ecological footprint ofa human population. [4] 26 Saray Land area of 103 000 km’. Terrain is mountainous and volcanic. Isolated island so biological diversity is low, and there are few endemic species. Only 0.7% of land is suitable for growing crops, and harsh climate means farming is limited to livestock and geothermally heated greenhouses 60% of population lives in the capital city Reykjavik. Total fertility rate is two children per woman Important industries include fishing, aluminium smelting and tourism Ecological footprint is 7.4 GHa compared to a world average of 2.6 GHa. Arepresentative democracy and high income country, ranked 13th highest on the human development index. Badly affected by the global financial crisis in 2008 Hydroelectric and geothermal power sources provide 85% of primary energy. Expects to be energy-independent, using 100% renewable energy by 2050. Government recently approved oil exploration in Icelandic waters by oil companies. © Figure 1 Fact file on Iceland 250 y 8 8 a 8 Energy consumption (P)) 3 8 4 8 0 FPP HLF LPL EF LEP SF e s 4 Figure2 Graph showing primary Year energy consumption in Iceland 1940-2008 Pj = Petajoule (1 Pj = 10°° Joules) e Estimated worldwide papulatian of twelve million. ¢ 60% of the world’s puffins live in Iceland. ¢ Puffins lay their eggs in burrows on cliffs in June-July, one egg per year. . ¢ Adult puffins bring small fish to their young. e Classified as “vulnerable” on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list. e Current population in decline. . ¢ Threats to puffins include overfishing, native predators such as foxes and gulls, introduced predators such as cats, hunting and egg collection by humans, oil spills, extreme weather, and disturbance from tourists. Puffins can be hunted legally in Iceland in April by a technique called “sky fishing”, which involves catching low-flying birds with a big net. Their meat and eggs are commonly featured on hotel menus. Puffin populations are affected by extreme weather events and changes in availability of food. & Figure 3 Fact file on the Atlantic puffin Question With reference to figures 1, 2 and 3, to what extent might Iceland be viewed as a role model for sustainability by other countries? [6] How do | approach this question? The command term “to what extent” means that evidence needs to be considered that is in favour of, and against, an argument. A canclusian should be given that is supparted by the evidence provided inthe answer. An answer could begin “Itis a model for sustainability because” followed by valid points, and then a section that begins “Itis not a model for sustainability because” followed by relevant points. A conclusion at the end of the answer should give a balanced view of what the evidence presents (i.e. whether or not Iceland can be viewed as | arole model for sustainability). Ifthere is no conclusion, then a maximum of 5 marks can be awarded. 27 De ee una) When providing examples of primary pollutants you need to include their direct impact. Far example, NO, can be either primary or secondary without such specification. Examples of secondary pollutants need to include the process leading to their pollutionary impact. PP sa) You need to be able to construct systems diagrams to show the impact of pollutants. Persistent and biodegradable pollution POPs are persistent organic pollutants that are resistant to environmental degradation. They can therefore accumulate in food chains. Once chemicals enter food chains, the top predators are often at extra risk because of the biomagnification effects of some chemicals. In contrast, biodegradable pollution is able to be broken down by organisms and so does not persist in food chains. Most modern pesticides, used to treat crops so as to ensure maximum yield, are biodegradable (e.g. Bt proteins, which are toxic to msects, are rapidly decomposed by sunlight), although earlier chemicals were persistent (e.g. DD) Acute and chronic pollution ‘The effect of, for example, UV (ultraviolet) radiation, due to a reduction of the ozone layer as a result of pollution from CFCs, may be acute or chronic. * The effects of UV radiation on the eye may be acute, and temporary blindness can occur. Chronic effects may be irreversible, leading to the development of cataracts and eventually blindness. * Acute exposure of the skin to UV radiation can cause mutations during cell division and sunburn. In the long term, skin cancers can result when mutated or damaged cells begin uncontrolled division and invade other areas (an effect called metastasis). Chronic exposure of the skin to UV-B radiation also causes wrinkling, thinning and loss of elasticity. In terms of air pollution, acute effects include asthma attacks. Chronic effects include lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and heart disease. Primary and secondary pollution A primary pollutant is one which is active on emission and directly impacts the environment. For example, CO, is released from burning fossil fuels and actively contributes to global warming; CFCs are released from aerosols and actively contribute to ozone depletion. A secondary pollutant is one that is formed from a primary pollutant through physical or chemical change. For example CO, combines with seawater to form carbonic acid that has an impact on calciferous shelled organisms or corals. NO, combines with water to form acid precipitation. NO, forms ozone that contributes to photochemical smog. Systems diagrams: the impact of pollutants Systems diagrams can be used to show the effect of pollution on natural systems. For example, the impact of nitrates leaching into a body of water is shown in figure 1.5.1. 30 Excess input of nitratesiphosphates } Rapid algal growth Rapid turnover/death rate of algae +e, Ke Less shelter from predation for planktivorous t species/zooplankton Reduces light penetration’ f death of macrophytes 1 Reduces 0, production from macrophytes } Cause death of animals ———— Deaths increase decomposition Less food for herbivorous animals < Decomposition reduces ©; concentration N\ Decomposition releases more nitrates/phosphates Figure 1.5.1 System diagram showing the role of positive feedback mechanisms in affecting the equilibrium of an aquatic ecosystem during the process of eutrophication Levels of intervention eT Tah There are different ways to approach the management of a pollutant. The three-step pollution management model (table 1.5.1) summarizes these different approaches. STRATEGY: Clear management strategies are needed to tackle the environmental problems caused by pollution. 'W Table 1.5.1 Pollution management targeted at three different levels Process of pollution _Level of pollution management Akering human activity XX Human pu) activity The most fundamental level of pollution managementis to change the producing human activity that leads to the production of the pollutant in the first, 5 pollutant place, by promoting alternative technologies, lifestyles and values The principles of pollution, through: particularly relating to pollution * campaigns management (see table 1.5.1), * education should be used throughout the * community groups course when addressing issues * governmental legislation of pollution. There are clear © econarnic incentives /disincentives. advantages of employing the Release Controlling release of pollutant earlier strategies of pollution pollutant Where the activity/production is not completely stopped, strategies management over the later ones into environment can be applied at the level of regulating or preventing the release of pollutants by: * legislating and regulating standards of emission + developing/applying technologies for extracting pollutant from emissions. Clean-up and restoration of damaged systems Impact Where both the above levels of management have failed, strategies may of pollutant be introduced to recover damaged ecosystems by: on ecosystems * extracting and removing pellutant fom ecosystem + replanting/testocking lost or depleted populations and communities 31 Collaboration is an important factorin pollution management Pods the effectiveness of each of the three different levels of intervention given a specific example of pollution. Test yourself 1.16 Explain how economic factors affect a country’s approach to pollution management. You need to be able to evaluate [4] For example, if approaching the management of pollution from CFCs: ©) Manage the human activity producing the pollutant: © stop the pollution by using alternative gases or substitutes © provide altemative technology e.g. roll-on deodorant instead of aerosol © ban the use of CFCs through international treaties or protocols such as the Montreal Protocol. © Manage the release of the pollutant: © recycle CFCs from disused refrigerators © create emission standards, laws or regulations © use more efficient technology so that less ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are used. © Manage the long-term impact of the pollutant on the ecosystem: © provide protection from increased UV radiation if necessary © for example, protect human skin with sunscreen or protective clothing, or provide advice on avoiding times of day when UV levels are at their highest © protect buildings and materials using UV-resistant technologies © use improved crops with more UV resistance, e.g. using genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that have UV resistance. DDT: conflict between utility and environmental effects Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a man-made pesticide that has both advantages and disadvantages. Its main advantages are in the control of diseases such as malaria and m improving crop yields. During the 1940s and 1950s, it was used extensively to control lice and mosquitoes. Lice spread the disease typhus and mosquitoes spread the disease malaria (Figure 1.5.2). 'loday there are about 250 million cases of malaria each year. DDT was also used as a pesticide in farming, which helped to increase agricultural yields. An economic benefit of controlling malarial mosquitoes is that time off work due to malaria is reduced and the productivity of workers increases. It also reduces health care costs to the government, employer, family and the individual. Overall, it is cheaper to kill malarial mosquitoes than to treat malaria. Costs of DDT In the 1960s, public opinion turned against DDT due to the publication of the book Sileni Spring by Rachel Carson (see section 1.1). Carson claimed that the large-scale spraying of pesticides was killing top predators due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification. An example of the biological effect of DDT is the thinning of eggshells in birds, such as the peregrine falcon which is at the top of the food chain. DDT can cause cancer in humans. There are also links between DDT and premature births. DDT has also been linked to low birth weight and reduced mental development. 32 * Biotic factors — interactions between the organisms, such as predation, herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, disease, and competition * Competition — the demand by two or more species for limited resources * Parasitism — interaction where one organism gets its food from another organism that does not benefit from the relationship * Disease — an illness or infection caused by a pathogen * Mutualism — an interaction between two species where both species benefit * Predation — interaction where one organism hunts and eats another animal * Herbivory — interaction where ananimal feeds ona plant ° Carrying capacity —the maximum number of individuals ofa species that can be sustainably supported by a givenarea * Limiting factors — circumstances that restrict the growth of a population or prevent it from increasing further Ea Valid named species should be used in your answers. For example, use “Australian plague locust” rather than “insect”, “marram grass” rather than “grass” and “oak tree" rather than “tree”. Habitat is the kind of biotic and abiotic environment in which a species normally lives. For example, lions are found in grassland, savanna, dense scrub, and open woodland. In contrast, a niche refers to the biotic and abiotic environment with which a species interacts, for example the prey that it cats, its vulnerability to parasites, access to fresh water, and so on. A habitat may be shared by many species whereas a niche is limited to a single species. For example, different cat species inhabit tropical grasslands but only lions hunt in groups and so they tend to take larger prey. The theoretical range of conditions in which a species can exist is called its fundamental niche. Species interact with other species in their environment, through competition and other ecological relationships. Because species interact with their environment in this way, individuals in a species cannot exist in all possible conditions determined by their fundamental niche ~ the range of conditions and environments where a species is actually found is called its realized. niche (sce figure 2.1.1). (a) Fundamental niche (b) Realized niche Resource 2 —» 8 3 3 a @ Resource 1 —» Resource 1 —» A Figure 2.1.1. The fundamental and the realized niche. in (a), species A occupies all conditions within its Fundamental niche, whereas in (b] biotic interactions with two other species limit the conditions and resources that species Acan utilize. Thisis its realized niche PP ua Ifyou are asked to distinguish between the terms “niche” and “habitat” with reference to a named species, make sure you give valid examples. ‘Role of species within ecosystem” would be acceptable as the definition of niche, but not “job", which is a human-centred term and only addresses the impact of species on systems, not the mutual relationship. Abiotic factors Nor-living, physical factors that influence organisms are known as abiotic factors. These include temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity, and precipitation. During fieldwork it will be necessary to measure abiotic factors and evaluate the methods used (table 2.1.1). 35  W Table 2.1.1 Methods used to measure abiotic factors and an evaluation of each technique Abioticfactor Equipment for measuring | Methodology Evaluation the factor Windspeed Anernometer The anemometeris hand-held and is pointed into Gusty conditions may lead to large variations in the wind. Itis held at the same height for each (Figure 2.1 2a) measurement. Temperature Digital thermometer The digital thermometer can be used ta measure temperature in air and water, and at different depths of soil The digital thermometer is held at the same depth or height for each measurement data. Care must be taken not to block the wind with your body when you are holding the anemamater Data will vary if temperature is not taken at the same depth/height each time Temperature is measured fora shart period of time Data-loggers can be used to measure temperature over long periads of time. Lightintensity Light meter (figure 2.1.25) The light meter is hand-held with the sensor facing upwards. The light meter is held at the same height above the ground for each measurement. The readingis taken when there is no fluctuation inthe reading } Flowvelocity Flow meter (Figure 2.1.2c) The impeller is put into the water just below the surface. The impeller is pointed into the direction ofthe flow. A number of readings are taken to ensure accuracy } | | Turbidity Secchi disc The Secchi discis mounted on a pole orline and is lowered into the water until tis just out of sight. The depth is measured using the scale of the line or pole. The disc israised until itis just visible again and a second reading is taken. The average | depth calculated is known as the Secchi depth Dissolved Oxygen-sensitive Hold probe at a set distance beneath the surface oxygen electrodes are attachedto | ofthe water an oxygen meter } Soil moisture sample of soil is placed | Weigh soil, then heat in an oven. Heat the soil until inan ovenand heated 50 | there is no further loss in weight. Loss of weight ‘that water evaporates, canbe calculated as a percentage ofthe starti weight. Soil moisture probes can also be used eM ai [a] & Figure 2.1.2 Apparatus for measuring abiotic factors: (a] anemometer, [b) light meter, (c) flow velocity meter Sampling must be carried out carefully so that an accurate representation of the study area can be obtained. An inaccurate representation of a study area may be obtained if errors are made in sampling. Short-term and limited field sampling (ie. small sample sizes taken over short periods of time) reduce how effective sampling methods are because abiotic components may vary from day to day and from season to scason. Most abiotic components can be measured using data-logging devices. The advantage of data-loggers is that they can provide continuous data over a long period of time, and this makes results more representative of the area. Results can be made more reliable by taking many samples. Biotic factors Biotic factors are the species, populations and communities present in an ecosystem. There are several different types of interaction that occur between populations: predation, herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, disease, and competition. 36 Cloud cover will affect the light intensity, Shading from plants or the person operating the light meter will also affect the light intensity. Care must therefore be taken when takingreadings using a light meter Velocity varies according to the distance from the surface, so readings must be taken at the same depth, Results canbe misleadingif only one part of a stream is measured. Water flows can vary over time because of rainfall orice melting events. Reflections off water will reduce visibility and make it difficult to take turbidity measurements Measurements are subjective and depend, to some extent, on the technique used by the person taking the measurements. There may be spatial variation in concentration due to mixing of water with air through turbulence, for example. f the oven is too hot when evaporating the water, organic content can also bum off Peat) You need to be able to evaluate methods to measure at least three abiotic factors in an ecosystem. XX  S Content link Negative feedbackis discussed in section 1.3. A Figure 2.1.3 Predation — an orb- weaving spider eating an alate (winged ant) A Figure 2.1.4 Herbivory—a Galapagos giant tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra) feeding on grass A Figure 2.1.5 Parasitism -a Rafflesia flower grawing on a Tetrastigma vine on the slopes of Mt Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia A Figure 2.1.6 Mutualism —a coral polyp containing photosynthetic algae within its tentacles Predation Predation is an interaction where one animal hunts and eats another animal. The predator is the animal that hunts and kills the other animal. The animal that is hunted and killed is called the prey. The carrying capacity of the prey is affected by the predator because the number of prey is reduced by the predator. The carrying capacity of the predator is affected by the prey because the number of predators is reduced when prey become fewer. These predator-prey interactions are controlled by negative feedback mechanisms. Test yourself 2.4 Explain how predation may lead to. a) stability in a population of the prey species; [3] b) long-term population decrease or extinction of the prey species. [3] Herbivory Herbivory is an interaction where an animal feeds on a plant (figure 2.1.4). The animal that eats the plant is called a herbivore. An example of herbivory is a caterpillar eating a leaf, The carrying capacity of herbivores is affected by the quantity of the plant they feed on. An area with more abundant plant resources will have a higher carrying capacity than an area that has less plant material available as food for a consumer. Parasitism In this interaction, one organism gets its food from another organism that does not benefit from the relationship. The organism that benefits from the relationship is called the parasite. The arganism from which the parasite gets ils food is called the host. [he parasite benefits from the interaction, but the host is harmed by the interaction. The carrying capacity of the host may be reduced because of the harm caused by the parasite An example of a parasite is Rafflesia (figure 2.1.5). Rafflesia are plants that have giant flowers and no leaves. Because they have no leaves they cannot carry out photosynthesis and so they cannot make sugar. Rafflesia flowers get the sugars they need froma vine on which they live (i.e. they parasitize the vine). Mutualism Mutualism is an interaction in which both species benefit. An example of a mutualistic interaction is coral. In a coral, an animal polyp makes a hard structure from calcium carbonate. Single-celled algae live inside the polyp. These algae are called zooxanthellae. The zooxanthellae photosynthesize and make sugar for the polyp, and in return the polyp creates a hard structure that protects the zooxanthellae (figure 2.1.6). Disease Adiseasc is an illness or infection causes by a pathogen. Pathogens are harmful organisms that include bacteria, viruses, fungi and. some single-celled organisms (protoctistans, such as Plasmodium that causes malaria - see figure 2.1.7). A pathogen will reduce the carrying capacity of the organism it is infecting. Changes in the incidence of 37