Economic Geography notes, Study notes of Geography

Download Economic Geography notes and more Study notes Geography in PDF only on Docsity! . . 1 Economic Geography for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com Economic Geography Part I Distribution of key natural resources across India and the World PDF Source for most of the facts and statistics: Indian Bureau of Mines Reports. 1. Iron ........................................................................................................... ....................................................... 8 1.2 Types of Iron Ore ............................................................................................................................. ... ........................................ 8 Magnetite (Fe3O4) ................................................ ........................................................................ ............................................................... 8 Haematite (Fe2O3) ................................................................................................... ..................... ............................................................... 8 Limonite ........................................................................................................................ .................................................................................. 8 . . 2 1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World ............................................................................................................................. 9 Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula ................................................................................. 9 Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine............................................................................ ...... 9 Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia ........................................................................................................................ .......................... 10 Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk ..................................................................................................... 11 Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador ................................................................................... . 12 Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais ....................................................................................................... 12 Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob ................................................................... 13 Largest iron ore producers ........................................................................................................................ ............................................ 13 Largest iron ore reserves ........................................................................................................................ ................................................ 14 . . 3 Top Iron ore producers in the world ........................................................................................................................ ......................... 14 1.4 Iron Ore Distribution in India ............................................................................................................................. ... .............. 14 Hematite reserves ........................................................................................................................ ............................................................. 16 Magnetite reserves ............................................................................................................... ......... ........................................................... 16 Iron Ore Production in India ........................................................................................................................ ......................................... 17 2. Coal ........................................................................................................... ..................................................... 18 2.1 Formation of Coal .................................................................... ............................................................ .................................... 18 Stages of coal formation ........................................................................................................................ ................................................ 20 . . 4 2.2 Classification of coal ............................................................................................................................. ... ............................... 21 Peat ........................................................................................................................ ......................................................................................... 21 Lignite (brown coal) ........................................................................................................................ ......................................................... 22 Bituminous Coal (black coal) ....................................................................................... ................................. ........................................ 22 Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre) ........................................................................................................................ ...................... 23 Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal Coal) ....................................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Distribution of Coal in India ................................................................................................................................ ................. 24 Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years ago) ............................................................................................................ ............ .. 24 . . 5 Tertiary Coal (formed 60 15 million years ago) ........................................................................................................................ . 26 Major Coalfields in India ........................................................................................................................ ................................................ 27 State-wise coal reserves and coal production in India .............................................................................................................. 28 The demand of coal, production, supply and import of coal in India ................................................................................. 29 Why does India import coal although it has enough reserves? ............................................................................................. 29 Measures taken by the government to boost production .................................................................................................. ..... 30 2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World................................................................................................................... ........... 30 Global Coal Reserves ........................................................................................................................ ....................................................... 32 Top coal producers and consumers in the world ........................................................................................................................ 32 . . 6 3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil ........................................................................................................... ............... 33 3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil ........................................................................................................................ 33 Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil .......................................................................................................... 34 3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India ................................................................ .................................... 35 Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India ........................................................................................................................ .......................... 36 On-shore Oil Production in India ........................................................................................................................ ............................... 38 Off-Shore Oil Production in India............................................................ .................................................. ......................................... 38 State-wise crude oil and natural gas production trends ......................................................................................................... .. 39 Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India ...................................................................................................................... 39 . . 7 ........................................................................................................................ ............................................................ 40 Oil Refiners in India ......................................................................................................... ..................... .................................................... 40 Crude Oil Pipelines ............................................................................................................................. . ..................................................... 42 3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil........................................................................................................ 46 Supergiants ................................................................ ........................................................ ......................................................................... 46 Countries with The Largest Proven Oil Reserves ........................................................................... ............................................. .. 47 Oil......................................................................................................... 49 OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries .......................................................................................................... 49 4. Natural gas ........................................................................................................... ........................................ 50 . . 8 4.2 Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and the World ........................................................................................ 51 Top natural gas producers, consumers, and countries with highest reserves .................................................................. 51 4.3 Petroleum and Gas Value Chain.................................................................................................................... ..................... 53 5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs ........................................................................................................... ....... 55 5.1 Coalbed Methane ........................................................................................... ..................................... .................................... 55 Coalbed Methane in India ........................................................................................................................ ............................................. 56 5.2 Shale Gas ............................................................................................................................. ... ..................................................... 57 Extraction of Shale Gas ........................................................................................................................ ................................................... 57 . . 17 Different subject matters of economic geography include the distribution of mineral resources, location of industries, economies of agglomeration (economies of urbanization), transportation, international trade, the relationship between the environment and the economy, etc. Importance of studying economic geography: It allows us to understand an area's economy and its economic relationship with other areas around the world. It helps us understand the reasons and methods of development of a region or lack of development thereof. It helps us find solutions to economic developmental challenges. GS1 Syllabus: 1. Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian subcontinent); {Economic Geography Part I} 2. factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India). {Economic Geography Part II} GS3 Syllabus: . . 18 1. Major crops cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage. {Indian Agriculture} 2. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. {Will be covered as a separate topic} Natural Resources Classification Biotic Abiotic Renewable (Non- conventional): biomass, solar energy, wind energy, etc. Non-renewable (Conventional): coal, oil, iron, etc. Metallic: Iron, copper, tin, zinc, uranium (heavy metal), etc. Non-metallic: graphite, diamond, mica, limestone, etc. . . 19 Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources will be covered as a part of General Science and Science and Technology. . . 20 1. Iron 1.2 Types of Iron Ore Based on the amount of ore and iron content, iron ore is classified into various types. Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Haematite (Fe2O3) are fine quality ores. Limonite, siderite, etc. are inferior ores that have their own unique characteristics. Magnetite (Fe3O4) Magnetite has excellent magnetic qualities, hence the name. It is black in colour and has very high content of Iron upto 72 per cent (best quality iron ore). Magnetite has higher iron content than hematite (60-70 per cent); therefore, its quality is higher. However, unlike haematite ore, magnetite ore is not found in high grades. That is, while hematite ore generally contains large concentrations of hematite, magnetite ore generally holds low concentrations of magnetite. Hence the ore needs to be beneficiated (treat to improve its properties) for magnetite recovery. . . 21 End products (e.g. steel) made from magnetite ore are typically of higher quality magnetite has fewer impurities than hematite. Magnetite with less iron content (25% to 30%) is known as Taconite. A naturally magnetized content of magnetite is called lodestone. Distribution of magnetite ore in India: Dharwad and Cuddapah systems Karnataka (73%), Andhra Pradesh (14%), Tamil Nadu (5%), Rajasthan (5%), etc. Haematite (Fe2O3) Reddish ore with naturally high iron content 60 to 70 per cent. Because of its high iron content, hematite ore can be used in steel production without benefaction. Hematite is the most abundantly available ore in India. Distribution: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Limonite Limonite is inferior iron ore that is yellowish in colour with 40 to 60 per cent iron content. . . 22 Limonite mines are open cast mines; hence mining is easy and cheap. Distribution: Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh. Siderite (FeCO3) It is iron carbonate ore of inferior quality with less than 40 per cent iron content. It contains many impurities and hence mining, in many places, is economically unviable. sulphur or phosphorus. And also, it is self-fluxing due to the presence of lime. 1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula . . 23 Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine . . 24 Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia . . 25 Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk . . 26 Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador . . 27 Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais Brazil has one of the largest reserves of high grade hematite ore. Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob . . 28 Largest iron ore producers Country Iron Ore Production 1. Australia 900 Million tonnes most of the ore is exported to China. 2. Brazil 490 Million tonnes most of the ore is exported to China. 3. China 340 Million tonnes very high demand for iron in the region. 4. India 210 Million tonnes Post SC ban on mining in Goa, grew substantially. Largest iron ore reserves World Total 840 billion tons 1. Australia 240 billion tons 2. Brazil 170 billion tons 3. Russia 140 billion tons 4. China 69 billion tons . . 37 More plants grew up, but they too died and fell, forming separate layers. After millions of years many layers had formed, one on top of the other. The weight of the top layers and the water and dirt packed down the lower layers of plant matter. Heat and pressure produced chemical and physical changes in the plant layers which forced out oxygen and left rich carbon deposits. In time, material that had been plants became coal. Older the coal, better the carbon content Capacity of coal to give energy depends upon the percentage or carbon content (Older the coal, higher the carbon content). Percentage of carbon in coal depends upon the duration and intensity of heat and pressure on wood (More depth == more pressure and heat == better carbon content). . . 38 Oxygen, nitrogen and moisture content decreases with time while the proportion of carbon increases increases due to the loss of other elements). Stages of coal formation In the process of transformation (coalification), 1. Buried plants turn into peat, 2. Peat is altered to lignite, 3. lignite is altered to sub-bituminous, 4. sub-bituminous coal is altered to bituminous coal, and 5. bituminous coal is altered to anthracite (oldest, best quality coal). . . 39 2.2 Classification of coal Coals are classified into peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. These classifications are based on the amount of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present in the coal. hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ash, and sulphur. Some of the undesirable chemical constituents include chlorine and sodium. Peat Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon (has more impurities). Contains sufficient volatile matter and lots of moisture (gives out a lot of smoke when burnt pollution). Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less heat, emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash. . . 40 Lignite (brown coal) Contains 40 to 55 per cent carbon. Moisture content is high (over 35 per cent). It undergoes spontaneous combustion (this is undesirable because it creates fire accidents in mines). Distribution: Rajasthan, Lakhimpur (Assam), and Tamil Nadu. Bituminous Coal (black coal) Bituminous Coal is soft, dense, compact coal with 40 to 80 per cent carbon. . . 41 Bituminous Coal is the most widely available and used coal. It derives its name after a liquid called bitumen. Moisture and volatile content are low (15 to 40 per cent). It does not have traces of original vegetable material. Calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture. It is used in the production of coke and gas. Distribution: Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre) Anthracite coal is the best quality, hard coal with 80 to 95 per cent carbon. It has very little moisture and volatile matter. It ignites slowly and hence there is less loss of heat (highly efficient). . . 42 It burns with a short blue flame (Complete combustion Flame is blue very few pollutants). In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in small quantity. Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal Coal) Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or Steaming coal High carbon content, less moisture, less sulphur, less ash. Sulphur content is high and hence cannot be used in iron and steel industry. (Sulphur reacts with iron to from iron sulphide (FeS). Iron sulphide is brittle (hard but easily breakable) and makes the whole metal and its alloys brittle.) . . 43 Used to create coke. Coke is produced by heating bituminous coal without air to extremely high temperatures. Coking flushing out impurities and improving the concentration of carbon. Creating coke using this coal is not economical. Moreover, traces of sulphur will remain even after coking. Coking coal is an essential ingredient in steel production. Thermal coal is used to generate power. Major producers: Australia, Canada, United States. Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United States. China imports huge amount of coking coal from Australia. India also imports coking coal. Major producers: China, Australia, USA, Russia. Major exporters: Australia, South Africa. 2.3 Distribution of Coal in India Coal reserves are six times greater than oil and petroleum reserves. In India, during the year 2016-17, about 82% coal and lignite got despatched to the Power Sector. . . 44 Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years ago) Around 98 per cent of India's coal reserves and 99% of total coal production are from Gondwana fields. The carbon content in Gondwana coal (250 million years old) is less compared to the Carboniferous coal (350 million years old almost absent in India) because of its much younger age. percentage to rise above 60%. (It requires a few million years more for the quality has to get better). Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but it contains Sulphur and phosphorus. Coking as well as non-coking coal and bituminous coal are obtained from Gondwana coal fields. Anthracite is generally not found in the Gondwana coal fields. The Damuda series (i.e. Lower Gondwana) possesses the best worked coalfields accounting for 80 per cent of the total coal production in India. Gondwana coal occur in the valleys of certain rivers viz., the Damodar (Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi . . 45 (Chhattisgarh-Odisha); the Son (Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh). Jharkhand Most of the coal fields in the state of Jharkhand are located in a narrow belt running in the east-west direction almost along 24 degrees north latitude. The main coal fields at Bokaro, Jharia, Deltenganj, Dhanbad, Auranga (Palamu), Giridh, Karanpura, Ramgarh, Hutar, Devgarh and Rajmahal coalfields. Jharia coalfield is one of the oldest and richest coal fields of India. It stores the best of metallurgical coal (bituminous coking coal) in the country. Bokaro coalfield lies in Hazaribagh district. It is a long but narrow strip in the catchment area of the Bokaro river. Girdih (Karharbari) coalfield gives out of the finest coking coal in India. Coking Coal Production by State 1) coal comes from Jharkhand) . . 46 2) West Bengal 3) Madhya Pradesh Odisha Most of the coal deposits of the state are found in Sambalpur, Dhenkanal, and Sundargarh districts. Talchar coalfield of Odisha stretch over Dhenkanal and Sambalpur districts covers an area of about 500 sq km. Talcher field ranks second in reserves after Raniganj. Coal from this field is most suitable for steam and gas production. Most of the coal is utilised in thermal power and fertilizer plants at Talcher. Other coalfields of the state include Rampur- Himgir and Ib river. Chhattisgarh Korba coalfield lies in the valley of river Hasdo (tributary of Mahanadi). . . 47 Other coalfields of the state include Hasdo-Arand, Chirmiri, Jhimli, Johilla, Birampur, Lakhanpur, Sonhat, Tatapani-Ramkota, etc. West Bengal First coal mine of India was opened in 1774 at Raniganj (largest coalfield of West Bengal). Raniganj coalfield is the most important coal reserve and mining coalfield of West Bengal. It stretches across Bardhman, Birbhum, Bankura and Purulia districts to the northwest of Kolkata. Small part of this field is in Jharkhand state. It is known for good quality coal with about 50 to 65 per cent carbon content. Darjeeling (Dalingkot coalfield) and Jalpaiguri are the chief producing districts. Madhya Pradesh The main coal deposits of the state lie in Singrauli, Muhpani, Satpura, Pench Kanhan and Sohagpur. Singrauli (Waidhian) is the largest coalfield of MP. It supplies coal to the thermal power plants at Singrauli and Obra. Jhingurda, Panipahari, Khadia, Purewa and Turra are important coal seams . . 48 Jhingurda with a total thickness of 131 m is the richest coal seam of the country. Pench-Kanhan-Tawa in Godavari seam in Kanhan field contains coking coal Telangana & Andhra Pradesh Godavari valley holds the coal of Telangana and Singareni coalfield is the main mine. Most of the coal reserves are in the Godavari valley: Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Khammam, East Godavari (AP), and West Godavari (AP). Almost the entire coal is of non-coking variety. These are the southernmost coalfields of India and a source of coal supply to most of south India. Tertiary Coal (formed 60 15 million years ago) Tertiary coal generally has low carbon and high percentage of moisture and Sulphur. Lignite deposits occur in the tertiary sediments in the extra- peninsular region particularly in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Gujarat & Rajasthan and also in Jammu & Kashmir. . . 57 Indian coal industry was plagued with low productivity, primitive technology, etc. Hence in 1975 public sector and private sector companies were liquidated to form Coal India Limited. Since 1975, all mining activities were undertaken only by Coal India Ltd. and its subsidiaries. The centralization of the coal industry resulted in lack of innovation and the sector soon became stagnant. In 2004, GOI decided to allocate coal blocks to private companies for captive mining (coal for personal use). But the procedure of allocation was embroiled in corruption (Coalgate scam: coal blocks were allocated without any competitive bidding during the period 2004 2009). GOI opened up commercial coal mining for the private sector in 2018 and approved the methodology for auction of coal mines / blocks for sale of coal. 2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World . . 58 USA Allegheny and Appalachian Mountains have enormous coal deposits. Carboniferous coal of Great Lakes and Appalachians region helped USA become a leading industrialized nation. However, most of the coal in the USA comes from western surface mines of Wyoming's Powder River Basin. . . 59 The North Antelope Rochelle Coal Mine located in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming is the world's biggest coal mine. China China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world. grade coal from Australia. There are intensifying environmental concerns (Photochemical smog) all over China due to coal burning. Russia Ural region and the Donbass Basin are important mining regions. untapped. Europe Coal reserves in Ruhr and Rhineland region coupled with rich iron deposits have made Germany a leading industrial superpower of Europe. England too benefited immensely from its coal reserves of South Whales, Yorkshire, Manchester, Liverpool etc. Industrial revolution began here mainly due to rich coal reserves. Brazil Brazil is a leading coal producer in South America. Most of the coal goes into power generation. Excess production is exported to China. Australia Australia is a leading producer of coal. Most of its coal is exported to China, Japan etc. . . 60 Australia has rich coking coal deposits. India imports coking coal mainly from Australia. Africa South Africa is the only region in Africa with significant amount of coal reserves. Global Coal Reserves As of 2015, total proved recoverable reserves of coal were about 1.14 trillion tons. 1. United States 22% 2. Russia 16% 3. Australia 14% 4. China 13% 5. India 9% Top coal producers and consumers in the world Top coal producers in the world (All data is in million tons) Top coal consumers Country 2016 2017 Country 2017 1. China 3411 3445 1. China 1890 51% 2. USA 700 775 2. India 424 11% . . 61 3. India (Bituminous + Lignite) 658 + 45 679 + 48 3. USA 332 9% 4. Australia (Bituminous & Brown coal) 503 492 4. Japan 102 3% 5. Indonesia (Anthracite & Bituminous) 456 461 5. Russia 92 3% 6. Russia 385 410 7. South Africa (Anthracite & Bituminous) 251 252 World Total (All data is in million tons) 7469 7632 3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil Petroleum (Petra means rock; Oleum means oil) is obtained from sedimentary rocks of the earth. Constituents of Petroleum include 90 to 95 per cent hydrocarbons and 5 10% organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organometallic compounds. . . 62 3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor. Over time, they were covered by layers of sediment and rock. Over millions of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper. . . 63 The enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and gas. Today, we drill down through the layers of sedimentary rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and gas deposits. Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil. An oil reservoir must have three prerequisite conditions. 1. Porosity (tiny gaps in soil) so as to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil; 2. Permeability (allowing liquids or gases to pass through) to discharge oil and/or gas when well has been drilled; 3. Porous sandstone beds or fissured limestone containing oil should be capped below by impervious beds (not allowing fluid to pass through). Most of the oil gets collected in the anticlines or fault traps. Oil on a commercial scale is usually found in crests of anticlines (where the sedimentary rock strata are inclined and folded). . . 64 Formation of exploitable reservoirs of hydrocarbons requires migration (from their source rocks) to geological traps comprising a porous reservoir rocks and overlain by an impermeable horizon. Anticline trap (MagentaGreen, Wikipedia Commons) Common geological traps for hydrocarbons include shales, salt domes (evaporites; also rich in sulphur), and anticlinal folds of permeable and non-permeable strata. In addition to liquid hydrocarbons, natural gas is also common. . . 65 Oil and Gas traps (MagentaGreen, Wikipedia Commons) Stratigraphic trap: an impermeable layer capable of retaining hydrocarbons. Structural traps: cracks in faults and folds that can retain hydrocarbons. 3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India . . 66 Process of mineral oil formation began in tertiary period (3 million years ago). Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times. In tertiary period, aquatic life was abundant in various forms, especially the minor microscopic forms of flora and fauna. Conditions for oil formation were favourable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary period. Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas and the land surrounding them during this period. Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India India has 26 sedimentary basins covering an area of 3.36 million square kilometres. The Indian sedimentary basins have been broadly divided into three categories: Type of Basins Basins / Region: Category I (~10 lakh Km2) Established commercial production. Basin Name Estimate (2017) (MMTOE) . . 67 1. Mumbai Offshore 9646 2. Krishna- Godavari (KG) 9555 3. Assam Shelf 6001 4. Rajasthan 4126 5. Cambay (Khambhat Gulf) 2586 6. Cauvery 1964 7. Assam-Arakan Fold Belt 1633 Sub-total (Category I) 35511 MMTOE: million metric tonnes of oil equivalent Category II (~7.8 lakh Km2) Known accumulation of hydrocarbons but no commercial production as yet. 1. Saurashtra 1,325 2. Kutch 898 3. Vindhyan 632 4. Mahanadi-North East Coast 651 . . 68 5. Andaman- Nicobar 371 Sub-total (Category II) 3,877 Category III (~15.9 lakh Km2) Indicated hydrocarbon shows that are considered geologically prospectively. Kerala-Konkan (KK) 1,245 Bengal-Purnea 828 . . 77 Mumbai, Maharashtra (BPCL) 12 Bathinda, Punjab (JV refinieries) 11 Manali, Tamil Nadu (CPCL) 10 Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (HPCL) 8.3 Mathura, U.P (IOCL) 8 Bina, MP (JV refineries) 7.8 Haldia, West Bengal (IOCL) 7.5 Mumbai, Maharashtra (HPCL) 7.5 Barauni, Bihar (IOCL) 6 Numaligarh, Assam (Numaligarh Refinery Ltd.) 3 Bongaigaon, Assam (IOCL) 2.35 Guwahati, Assam (IOCL) 1 Nagapattinam (CPCL) 1 Digboi, Assam (IOCL) 0.65 Tatipaka, AP 0.066 Total 249 MMTPA: Million Metric Tonne Per Annum BPCL: Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units) . . 78 CPCL: Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units) HPCL: Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units) IOCL: Indian Oil Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units) Crude Oil Pipelines Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL) Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL) Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL) Petroleum Product Pipelines Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL) Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL) Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL) Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL) Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL) Chennai Trichy - Madurai Product Pipeline (CTMPL) Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline . . 79 Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline first pipeline constructed in India Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali Pipeline. Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline world's largest underground pipeline Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline longest LPG pipeline in the world Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline Mangalore-Chennai pipeline Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline Advantages of Pipeline Ideal to transport liquids and gases. Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrains as well as under water. Economical. It needs very little maintenance. Pipelines are safe, accident-free and environmentally friendly. Disadvantages of Pipelines It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only for a few fixed points. Its capacity cannot be increased once it is laid. It is difficult to make security arrangements for pipelines. . . 80 Detection of leakage and repair is also difficult. . . 81 . . 82 Source and Credits . . 83 3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil The amount of oil a given region produces is not always proportionate to the size of its proven reserves. For example, the Middle East contains more than 50 percent of the global oil production. The United States, by contrast has less than 2 percent of the Supergiants Petroleum is contained in a few large fields, but most fields are small. The two largest classes of fields are the 1. supergiants, fields with 5 billion or more barrels of ultimately recoverable oil, and 2. world-class giants, fields with 500 million to 5 billion barrels of recoverable oil. Fewer than 40 supergiant oil fields have been found worldwide. The Arabian-Iranian sedimentary basin in the Persian Gulf region contains two-thirds of these supergiant . . 84 fields. The remaining supergiants are distributed in the United States, Russia, Mexico, Libya, Algeria, Venezuela, and China. Countries with The Largest Proven Oil Reserves Country OPEC member? Reserves (billions of barrels), 2018 1. Venezuela Yes 302.8 19 % 2. Saudi Arabia Yes 267 17 % 3. Canada NO 170 11 % 4. Iran Yes 159 10 % . . 85 5. Iraq Yes 145 9 % 6. Kuwait Yes 101.5 6 % 7. United Arab Emirates Yes 98 6 % 8. Russia NO 80 5 % 9. Libya Yes 48 3 % 10. United States NO 40 2 % Image Source: Wikipedia Saudi Arabia The discovery that transformed Saudi Arabia into a leading oil country was Another important discovery was the Saffaniyah offshore field in the Persian Gulf. It is the third largest oil field in the world and the largest offshore. . . 86 Iraq, Kuwait, Iran These countries have a number of supergiant fields. Al-Burqan second largest oil field. Russia Russia is thought to possess the best potential for new discoveries. There are two supergiant oil fields Western Siberia and Yenisey Khatanga. Kamchatka peninsula and Sakhalin Island are said to have significant oil reserves. Volga-Caspian Region has many oil and gas fields. North America North America has many sedimentary basins. Many oilfields have been found in North Slope region of Alaska and East Texas. The Rocky Mountain region contains an enormous amount of petroleum reserve. Canada has huge deposits of oil sands in the Athabasca region in western Canada Venezuela Venezuela is the major oil exporter in the Western Hemisphere. . . 87 Orinoco belt. Western Europe Significant oil reserves are found in North Sea. Exploration in the Barents Sea has been of great interest. Africa The main oil-producing countries of Africa are Libya, Algeria, Nigeria and Egypt. Niger delta in Nigeria contains enormous amount of oil. Egypt is self-sufficient in oil production. Algeria is another significant producer of petroleum where much of the national income comes from oil- export. Libya became a consistent producer of petroleum. Top Crude Oil Producers (2018) Top Crude Oil Consumers (2017) Top Crude Oil Exporters (% share) Country Million barrels/day Country Million barrels/day 1. USA 17.8 18% 1. USA 19.8 20% 1. Saudi Arabia (16 %) . . 88 2. Saudi Arabia 12.4 12% 2. China 12.7 13% 2. Russia: (11 %) 3. Russia 11.4 11% 3. India 4.6 5% 3. Iraq (8.1%) 4. Canada 5.2 5% 4. Japan 3.9 4% 4. Canada (5.9%) 5. China 4.8 5% 5. Russia 3.2 4% 5. UAE (5.2%) India (11th place) 2.5 3% OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC is a 14 member oil supply cartel. It is founded by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela). This group bargains with international Oil Companies to maximize their profit margin. They control production and supply of crude oil to keep it below international demand. The current OPEC members are the following: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. . . 97 5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable sandstone. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable sandstones, in joints and fractures or, absorbed into the matrix of shales (shale is a sedimentary rock), and in coal seams. Examples of unconventional gas resources: Tight gas, shale gas, and coal-bed methane. Extraction of unconventional gas requires specialized technology which is expensive & complex to develop. Unconventional Gas Reservoir 5.1 Coalbed Methane . . 98 Considerable quantities of methane is trapped within coal seams (underground coal deposits). A significant portion of this gas remains as free gas in the joints and fractures of the coal seam. Large quantities of gas are adsorbed on the internal surfaces of the micropores within the coal itself. This gas can be accessed by drilling wells into the coal seam and pumping large quantities of water that saturate the seam (water will occupy the gaps and pores and will push out the gas). Coalbed methane is now becoming an important source of natural gas. Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane contains very little heavier hydrocarbons such as propane or butane. The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk. Fire Accidents in Coal Mines are mainly due to Coalbed Methane, and Lignite deposits (undergo spontaneous combustion). Coalbed Methane in India . . 99 With one of the largest proven coal reserves, and one of the largest coal producers in the world, India holds significant prospects for commercial recovery of coalbed methane. It is estimated that India may produce about 5.5 million standard cubic meters of CBM by the end of 2018. At present, in many coal mines, coal mine methane is not trapped and is blown out. At present CBM is produced from some virgin coal mines Jharia in Jharkhand, Raniganj East and South in West Bengal and Sohagpur West in Madhya Pradesh. State Estimated CBM Resources (BCM) 1. Jharkhand 722 2. Rajasthan 360 3. Gujarat 351 4. Orissa 243 5. Chhattisgarh 240 6. Madhya Pradesh 218 7. West Bengal 218 . . 100 Total CBM Resources GOI has identified CBM Resources of 2,600 billion cubic meters (91.8 TCF). Problems in Exploration, Extraction of Coalbed Methane in India The state-run firms are holding mines in joint venture with private companies and the latter do not have rights to explore unconventional gas resources coalbed methane, shale gas, tight gas. CBM extraction falls under Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas whereas coal mining falls under Ministry of Coal. Hence, contractors are not allowed to mine gas from coal seams or coal bed methane (CBM) and coal in the same block due to the turf war between the two ministries and other associated bureaucratic hurdles. The technology required is very advanced and the public sector companies have very weak organizational setup to efficiently handle such technologies and extract gas economically. . . 101 Private sector companies have necessary financial capabilities and managerial skills but there is no hope due to restricting laws and low gas prices. 5.2 Shale Gas Shale gas is a mixture of lot of methane + little ethane, propane, & butane + very little carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks formed of organic-rich mud at the bottom of ancient seas. Subsequent sedimentation and the resultant heat and pressure transformed the mud into shale and also produced natural gas from the organic matter contained in it. Over long spans of geologic time, some of the gas migrated to adjacent sandstones and was trapped in them, forming conventional gas accumulations. The rest of the gas remained locked in the nonporous shale. Extraction of Shale Gas . . 102 Different types of sedimentary rocks contain natural gas, for example sandstones, limestones and shales. Sandstone rocks often have high permeability, which means that the tiny pores within the rock are well connected and gas can flow easily through the rock. In contrast, shale rocks where gas is trapped as a continuous accumulation throughout a large area usually have very low permeability, making gas production more complex and costly. Shale gas occurs frequently at depths exceeding 1,500 metres (5,000 feet). Extraction is done through horizontal drilling through the shale seam, followed by hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, of the rock by the injecting fluid at extremely high pressure. . . 103 Hydro-fracturing or Fracking Shale rock is sometimes found 3,000 metres below the surface. After deep vertical drilling, there are techniques to drill horizontally for considerable distances in various directions to extract the gas-rich shale. A mixture of water, chemicals, and sand is then injected into the well at very high pressures to create a number of fissures in the rock to release the gas. . . 104 The process of using water for breaking up the rock is known as - . The chemicals help in water and gas flow and tiny particles of sand enter the fissures to keep them open and allow the gas to flow to the surface. . . 105 Guar gum . . 106 Guar gum can quickly turn water into a very thick gel. Adding guar gum increases viscosity of water and makes high- pressure pumping and the fracturing process more efficient. High viscosity water is much more effective at suspending sand grains and carrying them into the fractures. The guar been is grown mainly by farmers in Rajasthan and Haryana. Earlier, guar gum was used mainly as an additive in ice creams and sauces. But with the discovery of its use in shale gas extraction, its price shot up enormously. Problems associated with shale gas exploitation Environmentalists have objected to fracking because of the damage to forest cover and possible contamination of ground water. However, industry officials say that the treated water can be re- used for further fracking and need not be disposed of at all. Shale Gas Reserves across India and the World Recoverable Shale Gas Resources by Country . . 107 Country Shale gas reserves (in TCF) Technically recoverable Shale gas reserves (in TCF) 1. China 1275 1,115 2. USA 862 623 3. Argentina 774 802 4. Mexico 681 545 5. South Africa 485 390 India 100-200 TCF World Total 7576 . . 108 Till 2000, there has been almost nil shale gas production in the United States, but now it is the pioneer country in shale gas production. China has the largest reserves, yet the production is low. In India, probable Shale gas resources are in the range of 100-200 TCF in 5 Indian sedimentary basins. ONGC predicts 187.5 TCF of shale gas in Cambay Onland, Ganga Valley, Assam & Assam-Arakan, Krishna Godavari (KG) Onland, Cauvery Onland & Rajasthan & Vindhya Basins. Indian engineers have gathered experience on fracking by spending time in the US and are now able to hunt for the scarce resource on their own. . . 117 Kotni area of Jabalpur district are the main producers. Tamil Nadu Nilgiri and Salem are the main bauxite producing districts. 6.2 Bauxite Distribution across the World : Source and Credits Country Reserves (BT) Country Production (MT) 1. Guinea 7.4 1. Australia 89 2. Australia 6 2. China 65 3. Vietnam 3.7 3. Guinea 47 . . 118 4. Brazil 2.6 4. Brazil 38 Total ~ 30 BT 5. India 15 Australia: Cape York Peninsula, Northern Territory, Western Australia.Each of these countries have enough reserves to continue production for decades to come. 660 MT. 7. Lead & Zinc 7.1 Lead Lead is a corrosion-resistant, ductile (can be drawn out into a thin wire) and malleable (can be hammered into shape without breaking) blue-grey metal. It is a bad conductor. . . 119 It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common metals and also has a relatively low melting point. Galena (lead glance natural mineral form of lead sulphide), a principal ore of lead, often bears silver. Galena is found in veins in limestones, calcareous slates and sandstones. Lead is easily extracted from its ores. Lead effectively resists corrosive effects of atmospheric gases and acidic substances. Hence it is largely used for coating iron-sheets, lining acid tanks etc. World-wide largest single use of lead today is in the manufacture of lead-acid storage batteries. Other major uses of lead are in the manufacture of storage batteries, paints, ammunition, etc. It is alloyed with many other metals to produce brass, bronze (anti- friction metal), etc. It is also used as plumbing material in automobiles, aero planes, electric wires, etc. . . 120 7.2 Zinc Zinc is a silvery blue-grey metal with a relatively low melting and boiling point. Sphalerite (zinc sulphide) is the principal ore of zinc. It is usually found in veins in association with galena, pyrite (iron disulphide), and other sulphides. About three-fourths of zinc is used as coating to protect iron and steel from corrosion (galvanized steel) and as alloying metal to make bronze and brass. The remaining one-fourth is consumed as zinc compounds mainly by the rubber, chemical, paint, and agri- cultural industries. Zinc is also a necessary element for proper growth and development of humans, animals, and plants. It is the second most common trace metal, after iron, naturally found in the human body. . . 121 7.3 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores India and World Reserves (in MT) Production (in thousand tons) Reserves (in MT) Production (in thousand tons) Country Reserves Country Year 2017 Country Reserves Country Year 2017 1. Australia 24 1. China 2300 1. Australia 64 1. China 4300 2. China 18 2. Australia 459 2. China 44 2. Peru 1473 3. Russia 6.4 3. Peru 307 3. Peru 21 3. Australia 841 World Total 83 MT India 173 World 230 MT 4. India 784 Indian has 2.5 MT of lead and 10 MT of zinc reserves. Both lead & zinc are found to occur together in ore along with other metals like silver and cadmium. . . 122 The country has the self-sufficiency in respect of zinc. In contrast, there is short supply of lead. Almost the entire production of zinc and lead comes from Rajasthan. The demand for lead from Lead Acid Battery Sector is met by the thriving market of lead scrap recycling. Hindustan Zinc Ltd (Rajasthan) is the only producer of primary lead and primary zinc in 2017-18. Edayar (Binani) Zinc Limited did not operate pursuant to repealing of Sick Industrial Companies. State Reserves (MT) Major Mines in Rajasthan 1. Rajasthan 670 89% Rampura-Agucha mine (Bhilwara district), Kayad mine (Ajmer district), Rajpura-Dariba and Sindesar- Khurd mine (Rajsamand dis- trict) and Zawar group of mines (Udaipur district), 2. Andhra Pradesh 22.7 3% 3. Madhya Pradesh 14.8 2% 4. Bihar 11.4 1.5% 5. Maharashtra 9.3 1.24% . . 123 7.4 Pyrites Sulphur is used for the production of sulphuric acid which in turn is used for the production of chemical fertilizers, textiles, galvanising of steel, storage batteries, refining of petroleum, explosives and other acids. Elemental sulphur is useful for manufacturing explosives, matches, insecticides and for vulcanizing rubber. It can be found as a pure element or as sulphate or sulphide minerals. . . 124 Pyrite is a sulphide of iron that occurs in sedimentary rocks. It is a chief source of sulphur. Sulphide occurs naturally in mineral ores, oil and coal deposits. Native sulphur deposit has been reported in Puga Valley of Leh district in Jammu & Kashmir. Petroleum refineries extract H2 it as a feed stock to produce sulphur. High proportion of sulphur is injurious to iron. Hence is it removed and used to produce sulphur. Total reserves of pyrites in the country as of 2015 have been placed at 1.7 BT. Out of these, only about 27 million tonnes are under feasibility category. Major reserves are located in Bihar (94%) and Rajasthan (5%). Entire native resources of sulphur are located in Jammu & Kashmir (100%) and are placed at 0.21 MT. China, USA and Canada have the highest reserves. (28%), Saudi Arabia (22%). . . 125 8. Gold and Silver 8.1 Gold Gold in its purest form is dense, soft malleable and ductile metal. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements (resistant to corrosion). Gold often occurs in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains, in auriferous (rocks containing gold) rocks, in vein, and in alluvial deposits. Gold Reserves and Production in India As of 2015, the total reserves of gold ore in the country have been estimated at 502 MT. The total reserves of gold (primary), in terms of metal stood at 655 Tons. reserves . . 126 State % Share In terms of Metal Content State FY 2017-18 1. Bihar 44% 1. Karnataka 1. Karnataka 99% 2. Rajasthan 25% 2. Rajasthan 2. Jharkhand 1% 3. Karnataka 21% 3. Andhra Pradesh The domestic production nowhere meets the domestic demand. The demand is mainly met through imports. 4. West Bengal 3% 4. Bihar 5. Andhra Pradesh 3% 5. Jharkhand 6. Jharkhand 2% Total: 655 Tons Total 550 TT . . 127 Karnataka Gold mines are located in Kolar (Kolar Gold Field), Dharwad, Hassan and Raichur (Hutti Gold Field) districts. Kolar Gold Fields is one of the deepest mines of the world. (Usually, gold mines are the deepest mines in the world. Mponeng Gold Mine in South Africa is one of the deepest mine in the world (3.9 km deep)). Hutti mines are exploited to their maximum levels and the ore left behind is of very low grade. The Kolar Gold Field has also run out of quality reserves and is on the verge of closure. Jharkhand Sands of the Subarnarekha (gold streak) river have some alluvial gold. Sona nadi in Singhbhum district is important. Sonapat valley is another major site with alluvial gold. Andhra Pradesh Ramagiri in Anantapur district is the most important gold field in AP Kerala The river terraces along the Punna Puzha and the Chabiyar Puzha have some alluvial gold. . . 128 . . 137 It also has the highest boiling point (5930 °C). Its density is comparable to that of uranium and gold, and much higher than that of lead. Much of the wolfram is used by the steel industry (it imparts self- hardening property to steel). It is elastic, ductile and has high tensile strength and can be drawn into very thin wires. Tungsten is easily alloyed with chromium, nickel, molybdenum, titanium, etc. to yield a number of hard facing, heat and corrosion resistant alloys (resistant to all acids). Tungsten carbide is used in cemented carbides (hardmetals) which are wear-resistant materials used by the metalworking and mining industries. Tungsten's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles. Tungsten is also used to make heavy metal alloys for armaments, high-density applications, such as superalloys for turbine blades. Tungsten's many alloys have numerous applications, including incandescent light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes, electrodes in gas tungsten arc welding, superalloys, and radiation shielding. . . 138 Distribution of Wolfram in India and across the World Reserves (in MT) Production (in MT) In Tungsten Reserves Country Reserves Country Production State Share Regions 1. China 1900 1. China 65 Karnataka 42% Kolar Gold Fields 2. Russia 240 2. Vietnam 6.4 Rajasthan 27% Degana in Nagaur district World Total 3300 MT 3. Russia 2 Andhra Pradesh 17% East Godavari district Indian has total reserves of 87.39 MT of tungsten Maharashtra 9% Sakoli basin in Nagpur district The domestic requirements of tungsten and its products are met mainly through imports from China, Austria, Korean Republic, etc. 9.3 Copper . . 139 Copper is one of the few metals that occurs in nature in directly usable metallic form (native metals).Copper is a malleable and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Copper and its alloys are widely used in electrical industry. Pure gold is 24 carat gold. This is alloyed with 2 parts of silver or copper to make it hard (22 carat gold). Major Copper Alloys Stainless Steel Copper + Nickel Morel Metal Copper + Aluminium Duralumin Copper + Zinc Brass Copper + Tin Bronze Copper Ore Distribution and Production in India Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL), a PSU, is the only integrated company in the country that is involved in mining & beneficiation of ore and is engaged in smelting, refining and casting of refined copper. . . 140 Copper ore reserves in India State Ore Reserves (MT) Metal Reserves (MT) Major districts with ore reserves 1. Rajasthan 813 54% 4.5 Jhunjhunu (Khetri- Singhana) 2. Jharkhand 295 19.5% 3.2 Singhbhum 3. Madhya Pradesh 283 18.8% 3.4 Balaghat (Malanjkhand copper mines) . . 141 Total 1.51 BT 12.1 MT Copper Ore and Coper Metal production in India in 2017-18 State Copper Ore Production (MT) Copper Metal Production (TT) Madhya Pradesh 2.3 20 Rajasthan 1.1 11.2 Jharkhand 0.18 1.5 Total 3.68 MT 33 TT . . 142 The copper ores contain a small percentage of the metal and hence mining is expensive. The total reserves of copper ore in India as of 2015 are estimated at 1.51 billion tonnes. The total metal content out of the total resources is a mere12.16 million tonnes (low grade copper ore). Hence India imports most of its copper. Distribution of Copper Ore and Production Across the World The world mine production of copper was at 20.2 million tonnes of metal content in 2017. . . 143 Image Source and Credits . . 144 Reserves in MT Copper Production in MT Country Reserves Country 2017 1. Chile 170 Chile 5.5 2. Australia 88 Peru 2.4 3. Peru 83 China 1.7 World Total 830 MT USA 1.3 9.4 Nickel Nickel does not occur free in nature. It is found in association with copper, uranium and other metals. It has relatively low electrical conductivity, high resistance to corrosion, excellent strength at high temperatures and capable of getting magnetised. Hence nickel steel is used for manufacturing armoured plates, bullet jackets etc. Nickel is an important alloying material. Iron + Nickel Stainless Steel . . 145 Nickel + Copper or Silver Rupee Coins Nickel-aluminium alloys are used for manufacturing aeroplanes and internal combustion engines. Metallic nickel is used for making batteries and as a catalyst for hydrogenation or hardening of fats and oils intended for use in soap and foodstuffs. Distribution of Nickel in India and World Nickel occurs principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates in India. Important occurrence is in Sukinda Valley, Jajpur district, Odisha, where it occurs as oxide. . . 146 Nickel also occurs in sulphide form along with copper in East Singhbhum district, Jharkhand. In addition, it is found associated with uranium deposits at Jaduguda, Jharkhand. Other important occurrences of nickel are in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan. Polymetallic sea nodules are another source of nickel. Reserves in MT Metal Reserves in MT Metal Production in 2017 in TT Imports in 2016- Tons State Reserves Country Reserves Country Reserves Country 1. Odisha 175 93% Indonesia 21 1. Indonesia 339 Guinea 2. Jharkhand 9 4.7% Australia 19 2. Philippines 315 Australia 3. Nagaland 5 2.6% Brazil 11 3. Russia 221 Total Total 189 MT World Total 89 MT 9.5 Molybdenum . . 147 Molybdenum is used as an alloying agent in steel, cast iron, nickel, cobalt, titanium & superalloys to enhance strength and resistivity to wear & corrosion. As a refractory metal, it is used in many electrical and electronic components. Molybdenum plays a vital role in the energy industry and it may become essential in green technology. Molybdenum does not occur freely in nature. Molybdenite is the principal ore of molybdenum. In India, molybdenum is associated generally with copper, lead and zinc ores. In India, molybdenum is produced intermittently from uranium ore of Jaduguda mine in Jharkhand. There are several critical minerals that India lacks and one of them is molybdenum. Molybdenum Reserves in MT Molybdenum Reserves in MT Molybdenum Production in 2017 in TT . . 148 State Reserve s Countr y Reserve s Countr y Productio n 1. Tamil Nadu 10 1. China 8300 1. China 130 2. Madhya Pradesh 8 2. USA 2700 2. Chile 62 3. Karnatak a 1.32 3. Peru 2400 3. USA 44 . . 157 There are more strategic minerals that are scare but are 11. Non Metallic: Graphite and Diamond 11.1 Graphite Graphite, also known as plumbago or black lead, is the most stable form of carbon. It is extremely soft (greasy feel), cleaves (splits into layers) with very light pressure. It is extremely resistant to heat and is highly unreactive. Graphite is the only non-metal that can conduct electricity. The carbon content in Graphite is high (more than that in anthracite coal). Graphite may be considered the highest grade of coal, just above anthracite. Carbon content in Peat < Lignite < Bituminous < Anthracite < Graphite < Diamond It is not normally used as fuel because it is difficult to ignite. . . 158 Most of the graphite is formed at convergent plate boundaries where organic-rich shales and limestones were subjected to metamorphism due to heat and pressure. Graphite formed from the metamorphism of coal seams is known as amorphous graphite. Both crystalline and amorphous varieties of graphite are produced in India. Synthetic graphite is manufactured in electric furnaces, using anthracite as raw feed. Applications of Graphite Natural graphite is mostly consumed for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, lubricants etc. A refractory material is one that retains its strength at high temperatures. Natural and synthetic graphite are used to construct the anode of all major battery technologies. Natural amorphous graphite is used in brake linings for heavier vehicles. Graphite lubricants are used at very high or very low temperatures. Modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay. . . 159 Distribution of Graphite across India and World Total resources of Graphite in India in MT Total recoverable resources of Graphite in India in MT State Resources State Recoverable Resources 1. Arunachal Pradesh 72 37% 1. Jharkhand 4.2 52% 2. Jammu & Kashmir 62 32% 2. Tamil Nadu 3.4 42% 3. Odisha 19 9.7% 3. Odisha 0.5 6% 4. Jharkhand 17 9% Total 8 MT 5. Tamil Nadu 7.9 4% Production of graphite at about 33.5 TT in 2017-18 Jharkhand (19 TT 56%) was the leading producer, followed by Odisha and Kerala. 6. Madhya Pradesh 5.7 2.9% Total 195 MT Graphite mines, barring a few underground mines are mostly small and opencast. Active mining centres of graphite are in Palamu district in Jharkhand; Nuapada & Balangir districts in Odisha; and Madurai & Sivaganga districts in Tamil Nadu. . . 160 ite (natural) Reserves in MT (natural) Production in TT graphite (natural) in 201718 were 40 TT. Graphite (natural) was imported from China (86%), Brazil (6%). Imports of Graphite (artificial) in 2017-18 were 67 TT. Imports of graphite (artificial) were from China (48%), Poland (17%), Malaysia (16%). Country Reserves Country Production 1. Turkey 90 1. China 900 (88%) 2. China 73 2. Brazil 82 (8%) 3. Brazil 72 3. India 34 (3%) India 8 4. Canada 30 World Total 300 Total 1 MT 11.2 Diamonds Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance found on Earth. Its composition is pure carbon. Diamonds are formed in mantle (formed from carbon under very high temperatures and pressures). volcanism. . . 161 Most of the diamonds occur in kimberlite pipes, dykes, sill etc. (volcanic igneous rock landforms). Diamonds, derived from the primary sources, occur in alluvial deposits also. Diamonds are used in ornaments and as abrasive material (polishing metal surfaces) and in gem cutting. The important industrial use of diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used for exploration and mining. Synthetic diamonds compete as an abrasive mineral with natural industrial diamonds. Distribution of Diamond Bearing rocks and gravels in India Andhra Pradesh: Anantapur (Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe), Kadapa, Guntur districts; Madhya Pradesh: Panna belt; Chhattisgarh: Raipur and Bastar districts; and Odisha: region lying between Mahanadi and Godavari valleys. The new kimberlite fields were discovered in Raichur-Gulbarga districts of Karnataka. in Million Carats 2017 in Thousand Carats State Reserves State Production . . 162 1. Madhya Pradesh 28.7 90% Madhya Pradesh 39.7 2. Andhra Pradesh 1.8 5.7% happens in Majhgawan, Satna District, Madhya Pradesh. 3. Chhattisgarh 1.3 4% Total 31.83 million carats India depends almost entirely on imports of rough gem diamonds for its Cutting and Polishing Industry. Workmanship of Indian artisans at polishing small diamonds economically has been widely acknowledged. Most of the world's diamond cutting and polishing is done in Surat, Gujarat. In 2017-18, imports value of diamonds was 1,90,203 crores. Imports were mainly from Unspecified countries! (27%), UAE (15%), Belgium (14%), Russia (12%), etc. Value of diamond exports stood at 1,62,022 crores in 2017-18. Exports were mainly to Hong Kong (40%), USA (30%), Belgium (9%), etc. . . 163 Diamonds Across the World Reserves in Million Carats Production in Million Carats Botswana is the leading diamond- producing country in terms of value, and the second Country Reserves Country Production 1. Russia 650 1. Russia 42.6 2. Congo 150 2. Botswana 22.9 . . 164 3. Australia 120 3. Canada 22.7 largest in terms of volume. The two important ones are Orapa and Jwaneng. Australia is famous for its pink, purple and red diamonds. Kimberley Diamond Mine in South Af- rica is well known. 4. Botswana 90 4. Australia 17.1 5. South Africa 70 5. Congo 15.4 World Total 1200 6. South Africa 9.7 . . 165 Differences Between Graphite and Diamond Graphite & Diamond are the major allotropes of carbon. Other important allotrope being anthracite coal. Allotrope: two or more different physical forms in which an element can exist (e.g. graphite, charcoal, and diamond as forms of carbon). Graphite and diamond share the same composition but have very different structures. Graphite Diamond Pure graphite contains 95-99% carbon. Diamond is 100% carbon. Graphite is a non-metallic mineral that forms when carbon is subjected to extreme heat and pressure in and in the upper mantle. Diamond is also a non- metallic mineral that forms when carbon is subjected to extreme heat and pressure in the mantle. Graphite is one of the most stable substances on earth. Diamond (one of the most stable) is less stable than graphite. . . 166 The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a hexagonal network that forms sheets that are one atom thick. In contrast, the carbon atoms in diamond are linked into a frameworks structure. These sheets are poorly connected and easily cleave or slide over one another if subjected to a small amount of force. hardness, its perfect cleavage and its slippery feel (E.g. Pencil lead). Every carbon atom is linked into a three dimensional network with strong covalent bonds. This arrangement holds the atoms firmly in place and make diamond an exceptionally hard material. 12. Non Metallic: Limestone, Dolomite and Magnesite . . 167 12.1 Limestone Limestone is sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The most important constituents of limestone are calcite, magnesite (magnesium carbonate) and dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate). . . 168 The dolomitic limestone in Gujarat is used for making slabs and tiles. Limestone of Kalburgi district, commonly known as 'Shahabad stones' are used as flooring stones. Pulverised limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralise acidic soils (agricultural lime). 75 per cent Limestone is used in cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel industry and 4 per cent in the chemical industries. In blast furnaces, limestone (flux) binds with silica and other impurities and facilitates their removal. As a reagent in fuel-gas desulphurisation, it reacts with sulphur dioxide which enables air pollution control. It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines. Distribution of Limestone in India Almost all the states of India produce some quantity of limestone. Reserves in BT - 18) in MT State Reserves State Production Regions 1. Karnataka 55 27% 1. Rajasthan 75 22% Almost all districts . . 177 The most common plutonium isotope formed in a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu-239. Pu-239 is the principal fuel in a fast neutron reactor. 14.1 Uranium Uranium is a silvery-grey metallic radioactive chemical element. It is only naturally formed in supernova explosions. Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the main elements contributing to natural terrestrial radioactivity. Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic number 92. Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%). All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fissionable. But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-mediated chain reaction). Traces of Uranium are found everywhere. Commercial extraction is possible only in locations where the proportion of Uranium is adequate. Uranium Reserves and Production across the World . . 178 Reserves (TT) Production (TT) in 2017 Country Reserves as of 2015 Country/Region Production 1. Australia 1780 23% 1. Kazakhstan 23.3 39.2% 2. Kazakhstan 941 12% 2. Canada 13.1 22.1% 3. Canada 703 9% 3. Australia 5.8 9.9% 4. Namiba 463 6% 4. Namibia 4.2 7.1% India 139 2% India 0.4 0.7% Total 7641 TT World 59 TT Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in Southern Australia are important mines in Australia. High-grade deposits are only found in the Athabasca Basin region of Canada. The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan alone accounts for most of the country's uranium resources Uranium in India Monazite sands comprises the largest source of uranium. . . 179 Monazite sands occur on east and west coasts and in some places in Bihar. But the largest concentration of monazite sand is on the Kerala coast. Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to be contained in monazite. Some uranium is found in the copper mines of Udaipur in Rajasthan. Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar, Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh, Aravallis, & Mahadek basin of Meghalaya. Singhbhum Copper belt is known for a number of copper deposits with associated nickel, molybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc. The state of Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of uranium in India. Tummalapalle village located in the Kadapa (Cuddapah) district of Andhra Pradesh is considered as one of the largest uranium reserves in India. . . 180 India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All needs are met through imports. India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbekistan. India is trying hard to import uranium from Australia and Canada. However, there are some concerns regarding nuclear proliferation and other related issues. Nuclear Power Plants in India . . 181 14.2 Thorium Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th and atomic number 90. . . 182 Uranium and thorium are the only radioactive elements that occur naturally in large quantities. Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are unstable, with the seven naturally occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234). Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium, with the other five natural isotopes occurring only in traces. Thorium Distribution Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earth's crust and is chiefly refined from monazite sands. Monazite contains 2.5% thorium and is scattered along the Kerala Coast. The other mineral carrying thorium is thorianite. Thorium is predicted to be able to replace uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but only a few thorium reactors have yet been completed. . . 183 The known reserves of thorium in India are estimated to be between 457,000 and 508,000 tonnes. Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan are the main producers. United States, Australia, and India have particularly large reserves of thorium. Reserves (2011) Reserves (2016) Country Reserves in TT State Reserves 1. India 963 1. Andhra Pradesh 31% 2. United States 440 2. Tamil Nadu 21% 3. Australia 300 3. Odisha 20% 4. Canada 100 4. Kerala 16% 5. South Africa 35 5. West Bengal 10% Related topics: Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors -Stage Nuclear Power Programme . . 184