Effects of Media Communication, Slides of Media Laws and Ethics

Download Effects of Media Communication and more Slides Media Laws and Ethics in PDF only on Docsity! Effects of Media Communication 主讲教师：王积龙 General Trends in Effects Theory Bullet Theory Limited-Effects Model Moderate- Effects Model Powerftul- Effects Model 1937 Institute for Propaganda Analysis 1942—1945 Hovland’s Research with U.S. Army Carl 1954 Voting 1960 Klapper’s Effects of Mass Communication 1 198 1990 1984 The Great American Values Test 1982 NIMH Report on Television and Behavior 1947 Mr. Biggott Study People’s Choice 1948 The 1964 McLuhan’s Understanding Media 1976 Ball-Rokeach and DeFleurs Dependency Theory 1970 Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien 1973 Noelle-Neumann’s Spiral of Silence Figure 13.1 Size of effect due to mass comunication for various theories.  New assessments that the Magic Bullet Theory was not accurate came out of election studies in "The People's Choice," (Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, 1944/1968). The project was conducted during the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to determine voting patterns and the relationship between the media and political behavior. The majority of people remained untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than the media. The effects of the campaign were not all-powerful to where they persuaded helpless audiences uniformly and directly, which is the very definition of what the magic bullet theory does. As focus group testing, questionnaires, and other methods of marketing effectiveness testing came into widespread use; and as more interactive forms of media (e.g.: internet, radio call-in shows, etc.) became available, the magic bullet theory was replaced by a variety of other, more instrumental models, like the two step of flow theory and diffusion of innovations theory. Magic Bullet Theory Limited-Effects Model  Limited Effects Theory(1940s-1960s): A type of communication theory (e.g., social learning theory, vicarious catharsis theory) that regards media as having conditional influences on the viewer: due to intervening variables, the effects of media on the viewer are limited.  1.Hovland’s Army Studies(No changing attitudes);  2.Cooper and Jahoda’s Mr. Biggott cartoons(Selective Perception);  3.Lazarsfeld’s second flow of media. (Few people were influenced by mass media). Limited-Effects Model  The media may cause change within the audience as intended by the communicator, a result called conversion.  The media may cause unintended change within an audience.  The media may cause change that is only minor in form, intensity or duration..  The media may facilitate change (intended or not) that is actually caused by other social factors.  The media may support the status quo, sustaining an audience in its beliefs or behavior rather than causing change. This is known as reinforcement.  Finally, the media may prevent change, often through the propagandistic use of one-sided information aimed at an audience that would otherwise embrace change if it had all of the relevant information. Powerful-Effects Model George Gerbner articulated the cultivation theory to serve as the “Grand theory” to explain a wide range of media influences. Cultivation theory noted the pervasiveness of television and its ability to seduce viewers who were relatively unaware of message content. It also noted television’s ability to blur distinctions between news and entertainment, or more deeply between reality and fiction. The theory rests on the notion that television (in both news and information models) distorts reality. Subsequent observers have noted that television similarly overstates crime and violence, exaggerates the role of sexuality in relationships, and minimizes faith and family. It should be noted that the media themselves do not claim to be representing average audiences; indeed the nature of both news and entertainment is to seek the unusual, highlight the unlikely, and focus on what is different from the mundane daily life of audiences. Much of the current theorizing about the influence of mass media is trying to deal with some assumptions about human behavior that have been studied by the behavioral sciences: The Spiral of Silence Formation of public opinion History and Orientation  Neumann (1974) introduced the “spiral of silence” as an attempt to explain in part how public opinion is formed. She wondered why the Germans supported wrong political positions that led to national defeat, humiliation and ruin in the 1930s-1940s.  Noelle-Neumann argues that three characteristics of mass communication: its cumulation, ubiquity and consonance.  Cumulation refers to the buildup of certain themes or messages over time.  Ubiquity refers to the widespread presence of the mass media.  Consonance refers to the unified pictures of an event or issue shared by different media. The Spiral of Silence Core Assumptions and Statements  The phrase "spiral of silence" actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel that their views are in the minority. The model is based on three premises: 1) people have a "quasi-statistical organ," a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to know the prevailing public opinion, even without access to polls, 2) people have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase their likelihood of being socially isolated, and 3) people are reticent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated.  The closer a person believes the opinion held is similar to the prevailing public opinion, the more they are willing to openly disclose that opinion in public. Then, if public sentiment changes, the person will recognize that the opinion is less in favor and will be less willing to express that opinion publicly. As the perceived distance between public opinion and a person's personal opinion grows, the more unlikely the person is to express their opinion. The Spiral of Silence  The theory has also been criticized for ambiguity and methodological weakness, but the idea has persisted. Evidence of the spiral effect is usually small but significant.  This example shows an effect of the theory where during the 1991 Gulf War the U.S. support for the war was measured. Either it is a consensus view or did media coverage contribute to a spiral of silence that dampened opposition to the war? In a survey that asked about people’s opinions, respondents were clearly less supportive of the war than the popular support depicted by the media. Those who watched television and perceived that the public supported the war, were more likely tot support the war themselves. This study supports the spiral of silence and suggests that people are swayed by bandwagon effects rather than fearing social isolation. Framing Theory  In communication theory, and sociology, framing is a process of selective control over the individual's perception of media, public, or private communication, in particular the meanings attributed to words or phrases. Framing defines how an element of rhetoric is packaged so as to allow certain interpretations and rule out others. Media frames can be created by the mass media or by specific political or social movements or organizations. The concept is generally attributed to the work of Erving Goffman, especially his 1974 book, Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Framing Theory  Examples used by linguists:  The word "progressive" to describe left-wing politics. The word "progressive" implies an improvement, or a step forward, and therefore suggests that right-wing politics are a regression or a step back. The use of the word progressive is sometimes used as a substitute for the word liberal (which itself was effectively framed by various opponents into a negative word, and is now being reclaimed as an honorable appellation).  Phrases such as "Pro-Life" (which implies its opponents are "anti-life" or "pro-death"), "Pro-Choice" (which implies its opponents are "anti-choice" or "pro-compulsion”).  “Anti-immigrant" (which implies the people this term is applied to are against individual immigrants as opposed to being against immigration or illegal immigrants.) 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