Electrophysiology and Action Potentials - Lecture Notes | BIOS 355, Study notes of Physiology

Download Electrophysiology and Action Potentials - Lecture Notes | BIOS 355 and more Study notes Physiology in PDF only on Docsity! BIOS 355: Human Physiology Course Objectives Spring Semester Electrophysiology and Action Potentials 1) Describe the normal distribution of Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl- across a cell membrane. 2) Describe how cells create this unique ionic distribution. 3) Define an equilibrium voltage. Write the Nernst Equation, and explain the effects of altering the ionic concentrations. 4) Describe the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation. Use this equation to explain how relative ionic permeabilities dictate membrane voltages. (for example, resting voltage). 5) Describe the gating mechanisms (and states) for neuronal ion channels. 6) Describe in detail the mechanism for propagating an action potential. 7) Describe the refractory periods and the mechanism responsible. 8) Describe the basis for the calculation of the space and time constants for neurons. 9) Identify how differences in axon diameter and myelination lead to differences in action potential conduction velocity. 10) Define membrane capacitance and identify how it influences the spread of current in myelinated and unmyelinated neurons. 12) Distinguish the effects of hyperkalemia, hypercalcemia, and hypoxia on the resting membrane potential and action potential. 13) Contrast the generation and conduction of graded potentials with that of action potentials. Identify in what region each occurs in a neuron. 14) Describe the effects of demyelinating pathologies (along with examples) on action potential propagation. 15) Describe non-spiking neurons and provide examples. Synaptic Physiology 1) Describe the ionic basis, and the mechanisms employed, by inhibitory and excitatory synapses. 2) Define and illustrate the cellular structure of a typical neuron and synapse. 3) Describe and explain the role of the various glial cells (peripheral and central). 4) Compare electrical and chemical synapses based on transmission velocity, fidelity, potential for response modulation. 5) Describe chemical synaptic transmission in detail. List the correct temporal sequence of events starting with the arrival of the action potential at the pre-synaptic membrane. 6) Describe temporal and spatial summation as it applies to the synapse. 7) Define synaptic facilitation and the presumed mechanism. 8) Describe the synthetic pathways, inactivation (or recycling) mechanisms, and receptor transduction mechanisms. 9) Describe the major classes of neurotransmitter receptors and list a representative agonist for each type. 10) Describe the process of long-term potentiation. 11) List drugs and disorders that alter synaptic transmission. 12) Distinguish between pre- and post-synaptic inhibition. Central Nervous System 1) Define and characterize gray matter, white matter, central nuclei, and tracts. 2) Identify the adult central nerve ventricles, meninges, and subarachnoid spaces. 3) Describe the role, composition, volume, and formation (by the choroid plexus) of the cerebral spinal fluid. 4) Describe the anatomy, and physiological role, of the blood brain barrier. Explain why some drugs have access to the CNS and some do not. 5) Describe the mechanisms responsible for the common spinal reflexes. 6) Explain the anatomy and organization of the spinal nerves, roots, ganglia, and tracts. 7) List the cranial nerves including their number, name, type, and function. 8) List the regions of the brain, their anatomical location, and function. 9) Distinguish slow-wave sleep from REM sleep. 10) Describe the primary rhythms that make up the EEG and the behavioral states that correlate with each. 11) Draw a diagram illustrating the flow of information for the brain regions involved in the planning, initiating, and executing a skilled voluntary movement. 12) List the areas of the brain that are involved in memories. 13) Explain mechanisms for short-term and long-term memory storage. Sensory Physiology 1) Describe the various anatomical designs, and modes of stimuli, for sensory receptors. 2) Explain receptive fields, including a definition for primary sensory neurons, secondary sensory neurons, and two-point discrimination. 3) Explain how the central nervous system can differentiate modality, location, intensity, and duration of a sensory stimulus. 4) Describe the following mechanoreceptors and their function: a) Pacinian corpuscles b) Meissner’s corpuscles c) Ruffini corpuscles d) Merkle receptors e) Free nerve endings f) A g) A h) C 5) Describe pain perception, including nociceptors, TRP channels, inflammatory pain, itch, slow vs fast pain, gate control theory, referred pain, and the role of analgesic drugs. 6) Describe the structure of olfactory receptors and the transduction mechanism. 7) Describe the olfactory perception pathway. 8) Describe the structure of taste receptors and the transduction mechanism. 8) Describe the mechanisms employed to control contractility in cardiac muscle fibers. Describe how the regulation of calcium influences contractility. 9) Explain autonomic control of the cardiac pacemaker and contractility. 10) Starting with the SA node, diagram the conduction route of an action potential through the heart and explain the functional significance of this particular route. 11) Describe an EKG and what can be gained from this clinical tool. 12) Explain the Starling Law of the Heart 13) List the factors that can influence stroke volume. 14) Diagram and label the pressure and volume changes that occur in the left ventricle in one cardiac cycle. 15) Describe the factors that can influence cardiac output. 16) List and describe the steps in one cardiac cycle. Understand the basic anatomy of the heart and explain the significance of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves. 17) Define ejection fraction and what factors influence this fraction. 18) List the route of blood flow through the heart, pulmonary, and systemic circulations 19) Explain the physiology behind the utilization of Beta-blockers and L-type calcium channel blockers to reduce blood pressure. 20) Draw and explain the Wiggers diagram. Be able to identify the functional state of valves, action potentials, and direction of blood flow and any given point on the Wiggers diagram. 21) Describe the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the cardiac stroke volume – EDV curve. Blood Flow and the Control of Pressure 1) Describe the components of blood. Compare and contrast hematocrit, RBC count, and hemoglobin concentration. 2) Describe the route of RBC synthesis. Explain the source and role of erythropoietin. 3) Explain the functional significance of the red blood cell structure and morphology. 4) Explain the RBC surface antigens, relationship to blood typing, and the concepts of universal donors vs universal recipients. 5) Differentiate blood flow and velocity in term of units and concepts. 6) Describe the relationship between pressure, flow, and resistance in the vasculature. 7) Write the formula for Poiseuille’s Law. Explain how changes in these parameters can influence pressure and which of the parameters are under physiological control. 8) Define systolic pressure, diastolic pressure, pulse pressure, mean arteriole pressure. 9) Describe how the above pressures are affected by changes in a) stroke volume, b) heart rate, c) arteriole compliance, and d) total peripheral resistance. 10) Describe the characteristics of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. 11) Contrast pressures and oxygen saturations in arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins in both the pulmonary and systemic circulation. Repeat this process for velocity of blood flow, cross-sectional area, and blood volume. 12) List the chemical mediators that influence arteriole resistance. 13) Describe how local increases in pressure vs flow velocity influence arteriole vascular smooth muscle and resistance. 14) Describe the mechanism by which the sympathetic nervous system regulates myogenic tone. Contrast the receptors and response of tissue specific regions of vascular smooth muscle to epinephrine vs norepinephrine. 15) Define and contrast (including location) continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, and sinusoids. 16) Describe the mechanism of capillary exchange and include an explanation of filtration, absorption, colloid osmotic pressure, and forces that influence these parameters. 17) Define the different kinds and causes of “shock”. 18) Define edema and explain the potential causes including obstructions, changes in permeabilities, heart failure, injury, allergy, and malnutrition. 19) Predict how altering pressure or resistance in pre- and post-capillary regions alters capillary pressure and changes in fluid movement across the capillary endothelia. 20) Describe the process of angiogenesis, including the stimulus that initiates new vessel growth. 21) Describe the components of the baroreceptor reflex system. 22) Describe the mechanism employed by the baroreceptor system and the physiological responses invoked to changes in blood pressure. 23) Define atherosclerosis, its development, and the physiological consequences. 24) Define myocardial infarction, its causes, and the physiological consequences. 25) Define congestive heart failure and the feedback that induces its development. 26) Describe ACE inhibitors and how they act to decrease blood pressure. 27) List the major tissues and the rate of blood flow to these tissues per minute (total and on a per gram of tissue basis) at rest and during physical activity. 28) Explain the design and role of the enterohepatic circulation. 29) Describe the role of the lymphatic system and explain how the structural design of the terminal lymphatic allows the reabsorption of large compounds (ex. protein). 30) Contrast lymphatic and systemic capillaries, including the significance of smooth muscle in the walls of lymphatic vessels. 31) Diagram the relationship between interstitial pressure and lymph flow. 32) Diagram the enzymes and substrates involved in clot formation. 33) Contrast anticoagulation mechanisms of a) heparin, b) EGTA, and c) coumadin. Identify clinical uses for each. 34) Describe the physiological factors and mechanism of clot fibrinolysis and anticoagulation. 35) Explain why aspirin is an anticoagulant. 36) What is hemophilia and what are some of the major causes Pulmonary Physiology 1) Draw and label a detailed anatomy of the respiratory system. 2) Describe the atmospheric concentration of gases. 3) Describe the concentration of gases that are typical at the alveolar exchange surface. In addition, explain why the two concentrations are different. 4) Define partial pressure, Dalton’s Law, and Boyle’s Law. 5) Diagram how pleural pressure, alveolar pressure, airflow, and lung volume changes during a normal quiet breathing cycle. 6) Define lung compliance and elasticity. Identify common clinical conditions in which they change. 7) Define pneumothorax and the physiological result. 8) Describe the symptoms and physiological causes of asthma. 9) Explain the Law of LaPlace. 10) Describe how surface tension applies to lung mechanics, including the effects of alveolar size. 11) Describe surfactants, including their structure, source, and physiological role. 12) Describe the regulation of airway resistance and its physiological significance. 13) Define anatomical “dead space” and how this impacts pulmonary ventilation. 14) Plot a curve showing the relationship between alveolar oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures vs. the alveolar ventilation rate. 15) Describe the heterogeneity of lung ventilation and blood flow, including the mechanism producing this heterogeneity. 16) Describe how, and under what conditions, the ventilation and blood flow patterns change in the lungs. 16) Contrast the local control of pulmonary vascular smooth muscle to that previously described for systemic vascular smooth muscle. 17) Describe the components/conditions that can influence bronchiole smooth muscle. 18) Name the factors that affect diffusive transport of a gas between alveolar and pulmonary capillary blood. 19) Describe the kinetics of oxygen transfer from alveoli to blood, and the concept of capillary reserve time (ie. RBC transit time at the exchange surface). 20) List the typical gas partial pressures in arterial pulmonary blood (pre-alveoli) vs venus pulmonary blood (post-alveoli). 21) List the factors that can influence the solubility of a gas in a liquid. 22) Define oxygen partial pressure, oxygen content, and percent hemoglobin saturation as they pertain to blood. 23) Draw an oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. On the same axis portray Henry’s Law (relationship between PO2 and dissolved plasma oxygen. Compare the relative amounts of oxygen bound to hemoglobin with that carried in the dissolved form. 24) Show how the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is affected by changes in blood temperature, pH, PCO2, 2,3-DPG, and the physiological consequences. 25) List the forms in which carbon dioxide is carried in the blood. Identify the percentage of total carbon dioxide transported in each form. 26) Describe the chloride shift and its importance in CO2 transport. 27) Describe the role of carbonic anhydrase and where it is found in abundance. 28) Describe the Haldane Effect. 29) Explain why the total gas pressure of the venous blood is subatmospheric. 30) Define respiratory acidosis and alkalosis and give clinical examples. 31) Describe the mechanism and function of respiratory acid/base compensation. 32) Identify the regions in the central nervous system that play important roles in the generation and control of cyclic breathing. 33) Give examples of respiratory reflexes that influence breathing frequency and tidal volume. Describe the receptors and the neural pathways. 34) List the anatomical locations of chemoreceptors sensitive to changes in arterial PO2, PCO2, and pH. Identify the relative importance of each. 48) Describe the mechanism of Ca2+ regulation including the roles of calcitonin, PTH, and vitamin D (calcitriol). Gastrointestinal System 1) Draw a rough diagram of the digestive system, including all the major organs, glands, and sphincters. 2) Identify the four common layers of the GI tract. 3) Explain the utility of single-unit smooth muscle in the GI tract. 4) Differentiate between tonic contractions, phasic contractions, migrating motor complex, peristaltic contractions, and slow wave potentials. Explain the role of the interstitial cells of Cajal. 5) Describe the characteristics of the enteric nervous system. Identify common neurotransmitters associated with the enteric system. 6) Identify the GI hormones and include a description of their site of production, target, effects, and stimulus for release. 7) Describe the role of somatostatin and histamine as paracrine regulators of acid secretion in the stomach. 8) List the stimuli for salivary secretion. 9) State the components, and their roles, of saliva. 10) State the stimulus for the swallowing reflex. 11) Identify the digestive enzymes of the GI tract along with their roles, substrates, and products. 12) Diagram a gastric gland and show the location of the various cell types in the gland. 13) List the secreted products of each gastric gland cell type and the role of that product in the stomach. 14) Describe the digestive steps that occur in the stomach. 15) Describe the development and treatment of peptic ulcers. In addition, describe the development and treatment of esophageal ulcers. 16) Describe the mechanisms that will protect the stomach from the harsh acidic environment. Explain why these same mechanisms limit the absorptive abilities of the stomach. 17) List the enzymes produced by the pancreas and the signals that promote pancreatic secretion. 18) Explain how the pancreas produces alkaline fluids and the signals that promote the secretion of this fluid. 19) Describe what is called the “alkaline tide” in the hepatic portal veins following ingestion of a meal. 20) Describe the mechanism of gastric acid generation and secretion, including the role of transport proteins and carbonic anhydrase. 21) Describe the GI feedback mechanisms that limit the release of chime into the small intestine. 22) Describe the mechanism by which pancreatic zymogens are activated. 23) Describe the role of CFTR in pancreatic secretion. Predict the consequences of cystic fibrosis on the GI system. 24) List the water, ionic, bile salt, and bilirubin components of bile. Describe the role of the gallbladder and the role of secretin on bile production. 25) Describe the role of CCK in causing the release of bile from the gallbladder. 26) Describe the role of bile salts in the digestion of fats. 27) Describe the hepatic portal system. 28) Describe the process of protein, carbohydrate, DNA/RNA, and lipid digestion including the enzymes involved and how and where the products are absorbed. 29) Describe lactose intolerance and its genetic component. 30) Describe the role of the large intestine. 31) Describe the composition and formation of chylomicrons, their movement across the enterocyte basolateral membrane, and the route of entry into the cardiovascular system. 32) Describe the causes of diarrhea and distinguish osmotic diarrhea from secretory diarrhea. Explain the physiological consequences of diarrhea and why it can be fatal. 33) Describe the immune function of the GI tract, including GALT, M cells, and Peyer’s Patch. 34) Describe the physiological disturbances associated with such GI pathologies as colitis, and Crohn’s Disease. Energy Balance 1) List the major ways in which the body stores energy 2) Distinguish between anabolic metabolism and catabolic metabolism. 3) Describe a ketogenic diet. 4) Describe the conditions that promote the release of insulin. 5) Describe the tissue targets of insulin and its mechanism of action at those tissues. 6) Describe how adrenal catecholamines influence metabolism and energy storage. 7) Describe the conditions that promote the release of glucagons 8) Describe the tissue targets of glucagon and its mechanisms of action. 9) Describe the cause and the pathology associated with Type I Diabetes. 10) Describe the cause and the pathology associated with Type II Diabetes. 11) List the peptides (and their source) that serve to modulate appetite (food intake). Immune System 1) List the three major functions of the immune system. 2) List the major categories of immune system malfunction and the physiological consequences. 3) Explain why bacteria and viruses require different defense mechanisms. 4) Describe the primary and secondary lymphoid tissues (including encapsulated and unencapsulated tissues) 5) Provide a list of the immune cells and include a relative measure of their abundance and their primary function. Classify the cells as phagocytitic, cytotoxic, antigen presenting, or granulocytitic. 6) Describe the basic role of lymphocytes and dendritic cells. 7) Contrast neutrophils and macrophages. 8) Describe the physical and chemical barriers to pathogens. 9) Describe the role of natural killer lymphocytes. 10) List and describe the role of the chemicals that mediate an immune response. 11) Describe the proteins produced by the liver (including acute-phase proteins and complement proteins) that influence the immune response. 12) List and describe the 3 types of lymphocytes. 13) Draw the structure of an antibody and list the major functions of antibodies. 14) List the different types of immunoglobulins along with where they would be found. 15) Distinguish between B lymphocytes, plasma cells, and memory cells. In addition describe the sequence of events in the transition from one cell type to the next. 16) Explain why the secondary immune response is faster than the primary immune response. 17) Describe the process of cell mediated immunity. Contrast cell mediated immunity with humoral immunity. 18) Explain the role of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in cell mediated immunity. 19) Outline the sequence of events and immune signaling responses to bacterial invasion into the extracellular fluid. 20) Outline and describe the sequence of events and the immune signaling responses to viral infection. 21) Describe how an allergic reaction may develop. 22) List the major blood group types, their frequency within the population, and why blood transfusions must take blood types into consideration. 23) List some common autoimmune diseases and state what malfunction is responsible. Reproduction 1) Describe the tissues that compose the testes, their specific role, and contribution to spermatogenesis. 2) Describe what forms the tight junction (blood – testes barrier) and its function. 3) List the hormones produced by the male reproductive system, the tissues responsible for their production, and the role of the hormones. 4) Describe the tissues responsible for oogenesis in the female. 5) Describe the ovarian and uterine cycles, the hormones that control the cycles, and the tissue responses to the changes in these hormone levels. 6) Describe the hormonal feedback systems that participate in the control of the ovarian cycle. 7) Explain the transition from follicle to corpus luteum. 8) Explain how menstruation is interrupted by pregnancy. 9) Describe the hormonal changes during pregnancy and how these serve to maintain the conditions required for fetal development.