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Grammar Handbook | Capella University | 225 South 6th Street, 9th Floor Minneapolis, MN 55402 | 1-888-CAPELLA (227-3552) Caprerra University 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Table of Contents INtrOGUCTION.........cccsccsescenescencsencensnnsnssnsnesnsnesneassneaeeaeaeeseeeeseeneeeeseess 3 Sentence Basics ..........ccsssccssseceesssssssnesssnesseassneaeeseseeseeeeseeeeseeseses 4 Sentence Structure........ccsscecsscsssssssesssnesseacseeseeseseeseseesesceseecenses 19 Paragraph Structure...........sscssccsssessseecsssssesssesessesesesceneneaeatesenenees 25 Word ChOICe .......sssessecesssessesesseseeseseeseeesseesescesescensecensenensenennensnnene 34 PUNCtUATION.........sssscsesseseeseseeseeeeseeseeeeseecensecessensesensenenseneneenenneneanene 47 MeChaniics ..........ssccssscesscensensnsenssnsnsensnesnsnesneaesneaeeseaeeseeeeseeceseesenses 69 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Pronouns e Pronouns can be used in place of nouns (when appropriate), and a pronoun operates just like a noun in asentence. It’s important to remember, however, to use pronouns carefully. Often times, writers make the mistake of referring to a noun with a pronoun without first providing and introducing the actual noun a pronoun is replacing. This creates confusion for readers since it’s then not clear who or what a pronoun is referring to. Also, once introduced, nouns should be mentioned again here and there throughout a paragraph to remind readers of the name or title of a noun (or noun phrase) even if it’s only acommon noun, such as “philosophy student” or “kitten.” Nouns should be renamed even more often when many different nouns are being talked about in the same paragraph, especially when writers are describing interaction between characters or objects...e.g., He swore to her he would never deceive her again even though she was the one who had first lied to him about it after he told her what the other man told him she said. How many people are being referred to in the previous sentence? When starting a new paragraph, it’s also a good idea to re-introduce a noun in the first sentence since readers typically look for a change in thought or direction in a new paragraph. On the other hand, it is a good idea to use plenty of pronouns intermittently throughout paragraphs to replace nouns (once they’ve been introduced) so that all sentences don’t begin exactly the same or follow the exact same pattern each time. Sentences may start to sound redundant or choppy (and sometimes boring) when they’re all the same and become very predictable to readers. Without sacrificing meaning and direction in your paragraphs, it’s good to mix it up a bit with sentences. e Personal pronouns tend to come to mind first when we think about pronouns. It’s because most people use them a lot in their writing, and most writers instinctively know to use personal pronouns when referring to people or things even if they’re not always sure when or how often to use them. The main thing to remember about personal pronoun usage is that it is based on number, person and gender. However, with the factor, gender, a lot has changed over the years in English language usage when it comes to the political correctness (PC) of referring to a person by their gender. It’s something to keep in mind when writing since the main change has to do with writers no longer automatically referring to an anonymous someone as “he” or “him.” For instance: “A baseball pitcher must work constantly on the accuracy of his pitch.” How do we know the pitcher isn’t female? So, it’s better to replace the word “his” with either “his or her” or with the word “their.” Even though “their” is typically known as a plural 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook personal pronoun, it has now become an acceptable and gender-neutral way to refer to someone: “A baseball pitcher must work constantly on their pitch.” (More information on gender can be found in the Sexist Language section under Word Choice in this handbook.) Another thing to remember about personal pronouns is that when writers use certain statements or commands, such as “Stop!’ or “Listen to me!” the personal pronoun “you” is implied... “You stop!” or “You listen to me!” Personal Pronouns Person Number Singular Plural 1°' Person | (my, me) we (our, us) 2™ Person you (your, you) you (your, you) 3"? Person he (his, him) she (her, her) they (their, them) it _(its, it) ii Personal Pronoun Examples: o He smiled at them, but I wish he would also smile at me. o You gave me your new recipe, so of course my lasagna tastes great. o Today, they watched it until she arrived; you will have to watch it all day tomorrow. o Aphilosophy student spends a lot of time writing papers for his or her courses. o A law student spends hours studying their law books. (gender-neutral) o They gave him to us yesterday, and we are really enjoying our new kitten. o Its name is Sunflower. Note: In most of the examples above, it’s not always clear who or what the sentence is about (besides a pronoun of some type). That's why it’s important for a writer to make sure readers always know who or what is being referred to before using a huge splattering of personal pronouns to replace nouns in a paragraph. e Personal pronouns and slang go together like...well, a lot of people use slang pronouns. And in common everyday conversation, it’s usually very acceptable; however, as most academic writers probably know, words like “yall” aren’t used in scholarly writing unless a writer is directly quoting someone else using such a word. Depending on various cultures and regions, different versions of the plural form of the pronoun “you” are used. Other slang personal pronouns include but are not limited to “you guys” (referring to males and females), or “yous guys” and “yous.” It’s only 0 CarELLa University Grammar Handbook necessary, however, to use “you” when addressing more than one person. viv (The word “dude”™ or “dudes” has been used as a personal pronoun recently too, but it’s also slang and shouldn't be used in academic, business or formal writing.) Pronoun confusion is common with certain personal pronouns: versus “me” “we” versus “us” “it” versus “they” “l’ is used as the subject noun in a sentence (person, place, or thing a sentence is about), whereas “me” is used as the object noun. “We” is used as a subject noun in a sentence (person, place, or thing a sentence is about), whereas “us” is used as an object noun. Use the pronoun “it” when referring to a singular non-human noun, but use “they” when referring to more than one of anything. Examples: Examples: Examples: I went fishing in the Gulf of Mexico. (‘P= who the sentence is about.) We are vacationing in France next year. (“We” = who the sentence is about.) The lion pride was an amazing site to see on the Serengeti even though it was froma distance. (“pride” = “it.”) Gina and I will scuba dive in Puget Sound. (“Gina and |” = who the sentence is about.) We, including several other people from another club, are participating in the race. (“We” = who the sentence is about.) The corporation was very generous with its donations. (A corporation or any other type of organization is a single entity.) Sherry called me last night from London. (“Sherry” = who the sentence is about.) I’m surprised you asked us to do the research. (‘’ = who the sentence is about.) All of the people working for the small corporation were well educated, and they had all received their degrees from Capella University. (People in an organization = “they.”) You will give all of the candy to Jimmy and me. (“You” = who the sentence is about because “You" is the noun performing the action, “give,” even though it’s in the possible future.) We heard you were excited to help us with the marketing project. (The sentence is about “We’ first because it is the noun performing the very first action, “heard.”) The data is organized by division, but it is not alphabetized or categorized by department. (‘Data” can be used as a singular or plural noun.)’ 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook unless it precedes a noun: “That belongs to “this” man.” However, it is okay to refer to a group of humans as “those” or “these.” Examples: o The fast roller coaster caused my stomach to ache. That caused my stomach to ache. o Which kids knocked over the table? Oh, those. e Indefinite pronouns are used to replace universal groups and general quantities or parts of groups or things. (They are also used as adjectives, which describe nouns.) Examples: o Many people joined the organization after the meeting. o One will know when it’s the right time. Indefinite Pronouns Quantifiers enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most Universals all, both, each, every (everybody, everything, everyone), one (two, three....) Partitives any (anybody, anything, anyone), either, neither, none (nobody, nothing, no one), one (two, three....), some (somebody, something, someone) Verbs e A verb is a word used in a sentence to explain what a noun—a person, place, or thing—is doing or to explain what’s being done to a noun. It’s usually an action word, but a verb or set of verbs can also explain an emotional/physiological response or action, (like “feel”) or a mental action or state,(like “think”) or a state of being, which may not typically be noticed or seen by others. For instance, the word “exist” is a verb that can be used to explain what a person, place, or thing is doing even though such a word might not automatically come to mind when trying to think of a true action word. However, “exist” can be used to explain the state of being of a noun or noun phrase—even though it’s not necessarily an obvious or observable action. 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook What about the verb “mad?’—Is it always apparent when someone is mad? (And that could apply to both meanings of the verb “mad.”"’) Yet, “mad” is a commonly used verb, but it’s not truly an action word. It’s more of a state of being or state of mind or emotion type of word. The verb “mad?” is typically paired with some form of the verb “be.” For instance: “Gary was always mad at Katrina.” or “| am mad at you.” Therefore, even though verbs may not always be apparent action words, a verb of some sort (or set of verbs) is usually an essential element in any basic sentence. So, when in doubt about whether or not a word is a verb, check its meaning; usually, dictionaries list a word’s part of speech next to it. (Several online dictionaries are available, too, such as webster.com and dictionary.com.) Verb Examples: o Larry exists—his spirit haunts the motel every night. o Boris practices everyday in preparation for the tour. e Shots hurt. / Loss hurts. / Rover hurt the kitten when he licked its little ear. o When Katya first arrived in Roswell, New Mexico, she noticed a shooting star in the sky. o | produce short training films for my organization. o Sonja says she transcends her physical being during yoga. o The television exploded while we were on vacation—I thought | had switched it off right before we left! e Verb Forms — Five factors come into play when determining what form a verb should take in a sentence: person, number, voice, mood, and tense. These are known as verb properties. Verb Properties Person | Verbs are in the same person as the subject or noun/noun phrase. Examples: o lam planning to go to the museum. (First Person) o You are planning to go to the museum as well. (Second Person) o Jeffrey is planning to go with us to the museum. (Third Person) Number | Verb forms match subject numbers/quantities. Examples: o The trip to Rome was planned in advance. o The trips to Rome were planned in advance. Voice Verbs explain either what a noun is doing or what’s being done to a noun—active voice versus passive voice. Verb forms change accordingly. Examples: 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook o Selma ate all of the raspberries. (Active Voice) o__Allof the raspberries were eaten by Selma. (Passive Voice) Mood Verb forms are sentence-type appropriate. Examples: o Listen! o Has he shopped at that store before? o | wish! had won the lottery last night. o If | knew how to tell him, | would. Tense __| Verbs indicate past, present, and future tense. Examples: o Ido study. o did practice yesterday. o _| have done that once before myself. Xi e Verb Expansion — Writers frequently use a combination of verbs, auxiliary or helping verbs.”"" One or more of these words are used before the main verb in a sentence to alter a verb’s meaning to better fit the context of the intended message as it relates to the overall story. Auxiliary or helping verbs provide “variations in meaning related to tense (time) and such conditions as probability, possibility, obligation, and necessity (mood).”*” Sometimes authors automatically use these verb phrases in their writing without even being aware of it. However, a writer may often find himself or herself stuck just trying to figure out a certain verb problem in a sentence because even though they may instinctively know something's just not right, they’re not exactly sure what it is or how to fix it. This is often especially true when it comes to the use of auxiliary or helping verbs in sentences. Primary Auxiliary words include: Forms of “be” be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being Forms of “have” have, has, had Modals can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to Special auxiliary, “do” do, does, did” Auxiliary/Helping Verbs Examples: Larry will have existed for twenty years. | do not want to go with you to Antarctica! | should have studied more before the final exam. We are inviting the entire class to New York. ° ° ° ° 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Adverbs e Adverbs are modifiers of verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or sentences. They are used to enhance one of these types of words or a sentence. For instance, adverbs modifying verbs often answer questions, such as: How? When? Where? Why? To what degree?*" Or to what extent of quality/quantity?*” Adverb Examples: Helen shouted loudly. Sara’s plane flew faster than Camille’s plane. Honestly, | cannot attend the wedding. The meeting went very badly. The bridge was pretty wide. (not formal) Tomorrow, |’ll talk to our instructor about the project, or you can talk to her today. 000000 e Adverb clauses modify verbs and also answer questions, such as: How? When? Where? And Why? (For more information on these types of clauses, see the section on Sentence Subordination under Sentence Expansion.) Adverb Clause Examples: o When you knocked at the front door, | must've been in the shower. | must’ve been in the shower when you knocked at the front door. o After you find the keys, we can go for a drive. We can go for a drive after you find the keys. Prepositions e Prepositions join parts of sentences. For instance the sentence, “I found my keys on the car,” is linked by the preposition “on” and would not make sense without it. Prepositions act as a bridge between two parts of a sentence and provide readers with information, such as location and time. Location — Preposition Examples: o Connie and Roger drove from Tucson to Atlanta in just four days. o The disease had spread throughout the village. 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook o The object is 2 the box. above over on at in beside beneath under Time — Preposition Examples: o Jedd has been waiting for his test results since last week. o The dictator ruled the small country throughout the last century. o Hewill continue working until his replacement is found. Defining — Preposition Examples: o Henry took his son to see a movie despite his son’s behavior earlier that day. © Cassandra made cookies for her classmates. o Mohammed was happy about the upcoming camping trip. Common Prepositions about behind for onto toward above below from out under across beneath in outside underneath after beside inside over until against between into past up along beyond like since upon among by near through with around despite of throughout within at down off till without before except on to x Articles e An article always precedes a singular noun unless a noun is universal or all- encompassing. In some cases, plural forms of nouns are also preceded by an article. This occurs when plural nouns are specific. 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Articles nonspecific nouns a,an specific noun the Examples: A party was planned in his honor. The party went well last weekend. Jim was made an honorary member of the yacht club. The boys were found fishing near the bridge. Culture affects individuals. The culture and history of the Mississippi River is quite fascinating. The data will be evaluated. / Data will be evaluated. 0000000 References “Basic Grammar Guide to the Parts of Speech: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs & Prepositions, and How They Combine to Form Clauses, Phrases, and Sentences that Express Complete Thoughts.” Quick Study Academic: English Grammar & Punctuation. (2003). BarCharts, Inc. Beason, Larry & Lester, Mark. A Commonsense Guide to Grammar and Usage. (2006). Boston, MA: Beford/St. Martin’s. Churchill, Winston. Brainy Quote. Brainy Media.com. (2007). http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/w/winston_churchill.htm| Dunbar, Paul L. “Dawn.” Great American Poetry. Ed. George Gesner. (1983). Crown Publishers, Inc. Kolin, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects: Fourth Edition. (2003). New York: Person Education, Inc. Lewis, Peter H. “What's Doing in: Austin.” The New York Times: nytimes.com. (2004, February 22.) http://query .nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.htm|?res=9A06E2D7173DF931A157 51C0A9629C 8B63&sec=travel&spon=&pagewanted=print MacFadyen, Heather. “The Parts of Speech: What is a Preposition?” The Writing Centre: HyperGrammar. University of Ottawa. (2007). http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html Merriam-Webster online. (2007). http:/Awww.webster.com/dictionary/exist 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Sentence Building Blocks e Aphrase is a cluster of connected words that do not form a complete idea or sentence. e Aclause consists of a subject (noun/noun phrase) and a predicate (verb/verb phrase). It can either be an independent clause (simple sentence), or it can be a dependent clause that relies on an independent clause to form a complete sentence. (For more information on dependent/independent clauses, see Sentence Expansion.) e¢ Asimple sentence contains a subject (noun/noun phrase) and a predicate (verb/verb phrase). It communicates one complete idea as an independent clause. It’s a complete sentence. e« Acompound sentence is the logical combination of two complete thoughts or independent clauses to form one sentence. It is usually linked by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon, but subordinating conjunctions used in a complex sentence can be used as coordinators as well to form a compound sentence as it were. (For more information, see Sentence Coordination/Subordination under Sentence Construction.) e Acomplex sentence includes a dependent clause linked to an independent clause by a subordinating conjunction of some kind to form a complete sentence. Sentence Types e Declarative sentences state a fact. Example: Rene’ loves playing football. e Imperative sentences give an order. Example: Trevor, fetch the ball. e Interrogative sentences ask questions. Example: Which countries did you visit while in Europe? e Exclamatory sentences exclaim. Example: Help me! Sentence Expansion Combining Sentences 20 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook What if you want to combine two (or more) complete thoughts or sentences to create a compound sentence or a complex sentence? Joining related ideas allows writers to avoid “choppiness” caused from overuse of short or blunt sentences. There is more than one way to unite two (or more) sentences. However, two complete sentences (independent clauses) may only be joined by a conjunction of some type or a semicolon, whereas dependent clauses connected to independent clauses use subordinating conjunctions. Subject-NOUN + VERB + Object- ENOUN? €Subject-NOUN + VERB + Object-NOUN [Predicate I Predicate ] Sentence Sentence Equal/complete sentences must be joined correctly, or run-ons and comma splices will occur and become a problem in writing. e Run-on sentences and comma splices occur when two complete thoughts are combined incorrectly. Examples of what NOT to do are as follows: NOT: Kerry loves to play the guitar she is a wonderful musician. (RUN-ON) NOT: Jeff likes sports, he coaches soccer in his spare time. (COMMA SPLICE) The first sentence is incorrect because it’s a run-on sentence; it needs a comma and a conjunction, or it needs a semicolon. The second sentence is incorrect because of a comma splice—a coordinating conjunction is needed after the existing comma, or the comma should be changed to a semicolon. In both sentences, two or more complete thoughts are joined without proper punctuation/coordination or subordination. Sentence Coordination ¢ Coordination—two or more complete ideas or thoughts are combined that could each stand alone as independent clauses (or simple sentences) (each containing a subject + predicate). Subject-NOUN + VERB + Object- NOUN €Subject-NOUN + VERB + Object-NOUN [I Predicate I Predicate ] Sentence Sentence Use one of the seven coordinating conjunctions—for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (a.k.a. FANBOYS)—with a comma included beforehand to combine sentences. 21 0 CarELLa University Sentence Coordination Examples: Grammar Handbook o Rene’ missed Alaska, for he longed for its beauty and tranquility. o Javier prepared a great Italian dinner, and he served expensive Italian red wine. o Rachel was not ready for marriage, nor was she ready for a real commitment of any type. o You may not have French fries, but you may have salad. o Helen may visit her grandmother for Thanksgiving, or she might wait until winter break. o Keith worried about the wounded bird, yet he didn’t want to be responsible for it. o Wewill be in Sweden for three weeks, so we'll have plenty of time to soak up the culture. Sentence Subordination Subordination—two or more ideas or thoughts are combined that could NOT stand alone as independent clauses (if the subordinating conjunction begins the first clause). Sometimes sentences are combined so that one clause is dependent upon another clause or phrase. In other words, because of its structure and correlation to another sentence, a dependent sentence cannot stand alone. Subject-NOUN + VERB + Object-NOUN> Sentence Sentence €Subject-NOUN + VERB + Object-NOUN Below is a list of words commonly used to set up a dependent clause combined with an independent clause to form a complex sentence. Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below are prepositions. Subordinating Conjunctions after as long | even if rather | that until whereas as only although | as even if | in since | though | when wherever though order as because | even now | so till whenever | while though | that__| that 22 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Paragraph Structure Paragraph Elements Paragraphs can be viewed as groups of mini papers that make up larger papers (e.g., essay, manuscript or report). Just as a paper is made up of certain elements—an introduction, a body and a conclusion—so is each paragraph but ona smaller scale. The table below compares the two. Elements of a Paper compared with Elements of a Paragraph Paper Paragraph Introduction Introductory/Topic Sentence (I/T) (with main idea/thesis statement) (provides main idea of paragraph) Body Body (with paragraphs) (with points, evidence and synthesis) Conclusion Concluding Sentence (restates main idea/thesis statement) (restates idea in I/T sentence and “hints” at what’s coming in the next paragraph) Another way to think about paragraphs in a paper is to imagine a court case or trial. Attorneys present a case to a judge or jury for aclient. They then attempt to prove their case with evidence. The goal of an attorney, of course, is to persuade the judge or jury to believe what they present so that their client will receive the best possible outcome. Like an attorney, a writer can view his or her audience as the judge or jury. Paragraphs in a paper are small units of information that hold points and evidence. Each point and evidence set works together to prove the overall idea or thesis statement of a paper. Introductory/Topic Sentences e Introductory sentences in a paragraph inform readers of the paragraph topic; hence, introductory sentences are also called topic sentences. Each paragraph should only have one topic or main idea; otherwise, paragraphs will be confusing and readers won't be able to follow a writer’s train of thought. An introductory/topic sentence is usually the very first sentence of a paragraph, but it doesn’t have to be. Sometimes it can be even the second sentence in a paragraph...maybe even the third. However, if placed much further away from the beginning of a paragraph, there is a good chance readers will be lost and have no idea what the paragraph is supposed to be about. Introductory/Topic Sentences can be categorized into types: Intro/Topic Sentence Types 25 0 CarELLa University Grammar Handbook Type Function Direct Purpose announcement. Now, | will tell you why we should support the Daffy Duck presidential campaign. Question Purpose in the form of a Why Should we question. support the Daffy Duck presidential campaign? Nutshell (most common) Overall idea—mini/partial version of thesis. The third reason Daffy Duck should be president is.... Address the Reader Confronts reader about what they are thinking/wondering. You might be wondering why we should support the Daffy Duck presidential campaign. Connect to Previous Paragraph Goes back to the last paragraph’s idea. An example of a good campaign supporter.... Alert Shows paragraph’s importance or calls attention to an upcoming paragraph point. Everyone will regret it if they don’t support the Daffy Duck presidential campaign.... XXi Note: Normally, personal pronouns like “I” or “you” are not used in academic or professional papers. Be sure to ask your instructor if these personal pronouns are acceptable in a particular assignment. Points In the first part of a paragraph body, specific points should be made relating to the intro/topic sentence. (Sometimes a point can even be made within the intro/topic sentence.) These points express a writer’s explicit opinions about the main idea of the paragraph. After all, the whole purpose of writing a paper is to express one’s own opinion (i.e., thesis statement) and ideas on a matter. Therefore, it makes sense that each paragraph produces one’s own detailed ideas or points relating to his or her entire opinion on an issue. As such, each intro/topic sentence ties back to the thesis statement or overall idea of a paper. For example, upon examining any textbook readers will notice the same to be true in paragraphs within chapters of a textbook. Each intro/topic sentence 26 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook reflects the overarching idea of the textbook, and each point made in each paragraph breaks down the main idea of the intro/topic sentence. Are textbooks based on opinion though? Use critical thinking skills to determine the answer to the previous question. Another example is a newspaper article—is it based on opinion? Theoretically, it’s not supposed to be. Are its points based on the reporter's take on the story? Reporters are supposed to be non-biased in their writing. However, opinion affects all writing—no matter what type of writing it is. Reporters must be especially careful about the points they make. Example: “A man was shot today by a police officer.” versus “A man was murdered today by a police officer.” Yet, in both sentences an opinion is expressed than must be proven with evidence. How a writer feels about something always comes across in his or her text. This is how the phrase, “read between the lines,” came to be. Likewise, even the academic paper based on peer reviewed scientific research and study, and written with austere analytical and logical prowess and supported with solid facts/evidence, is influenced in some way by the writer’s opinions or how they see things. For instance, does the author write about flaws in a study that was conducted? This is when critical thinking techniques come into play. Your job as a learner is to question everything—then compare it, dissect it, judge it and write about it. Next, your job is to provide evidence to back up what you’re saying and to prove it. That's the purpose of research, experimentation and learning and writing about it. Evidence & Supporting Details e Evidence/Supporting Details—in order to prove points made in a paragraph, one must show that his or her points are valid and based on facts and/or experiences. Here is where a writer leaves out their opinions. Although, your opinion on something may, indeed, influence the research or experiences you’ve chosen to use as evidence, you only want to provide facts to back up your points (opinions) in this part of the paragraph. What may be used as evidence or supporting detail? Going back to the court case example in the beginning of this section, think of the things an attorney might use as evidence. Your evidence will be similar except that instead of providing objects that can be seen and examined as in many court cases or trials, you will provide evidence from your references and source material. You evidence is seen and examined by your readers through words. Example: Attorney (addressing the jury): Clearly, Mr. Jones couldn't have stolen his neighbor's lawn mower on 27 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook 3" Sentence Another Summary Sentence | Participants were in the dark (of evidence) about the lack of records. In the first NOT box, the writer is not actually expressing their own opinions or ideas about a topic, nor do they have an intro/topic sentence, a synthesis or a concluding sentence. Rather, the writer is letting someone else (in a sense) write the paper for them by simply copying down quoted material or paraphrasing it and then summarizing it. As long as the information has in text citation information (author/date), it is not a form of plagiarism. However, this way of delivering paragraphs is not considered academic or scholarly writing. It is not really writing at all—it’s restating and summarizing. NOT a Paragraph Sentence Sentence Type Example 18’ Sentence Point (your opinion) Although, many people developed health problems after being exposed to radiation during nuclear testing in Nevada, they had no legal recourse since officials kept the experiments a secret. 2"? Sentence Evidence Sentence (quote or | According to Gentry (1999), paraphrase) experiments performed in Nevada during nuclear testing were never recorded. In the second NOT box, the writer does manage to give an opinion and even evidence to back up his or her opinion. Other important paragraph elements are missing though, i.e., intro/topic sentence, a synthesis sentence, and a concluding sentence. Also, the first sentence might have more than one point in it. Does it require more evidence? Unity Every sentence in a paragraph should add to its development. Paragraph unity happens when all of the sentences are working together to support the introAtopic sentence. Sometimes a paragraph loses its unity due to a rogue sentence or, or because of a sentence (or two) that only partly relates to the overall idea of a paragraph. The paragraph is not unified because it has lost focus with these sentences. Following is an example: NOT a Unified/Focused Paragraph 30 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook It seemed like a perfect day for a drive. The sun was shining brightly and the air was cool and clear. | knew | needed to have my tires changed, but | didn’t care. Plus, | knew | didn’t have extra money for new tires. | was too happy about my promotion, and the entire world seemed right. | was going for a drive! At least the previous paragraph ends where it began. The concluding sentence refers back to the intro/topic sentence. However, the paragraph body is not developed properly because the sentences don’t work together to maintain focus. Therefore, it is not a unified paragraph. Writers definitely should avoid using non sequiturs such as these in their paragraphs. Make sure each sentence develops the main idea of a paragraph. Organization Paragraph organization can be described in various ways, but the basic pattern is always the same. This is because certain elements are always required, and they are usually ordered the same. One way of visualizing a paragraph and remembering what goes where is to think of its elements as steps: Intro/topic sentence (main idea) Points (writer's opinion) Evidence (backs up points) Synthesis (tells why evidence backs up points) Concluding Sentence (concludes/restates main idea/"hints” at next paragraph) gg PRoON> Other ways of describing a paragraph might be easier to remember. For instance, the MEAL Plan is another way to remember how to organize a paragraph. Coherence For a paper to be coherent paragraphs should be relatively easy to follow— sentences should be parallel*”, should each make sense and be arranged logically, and should flow without skipping a beat. If readers have to stop because they’re suddenly lost or confused, paragraphs themselves may not be coherent, which may make the entire paper seem specious. Compose positive sentences and deliver strong declarations. Authors must sound sure of themselves. “Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language.” Avoid the word “not” unless it’s absolutely necessary (e.g., to show contrast). It can also seem as though a writer is trying to be evasive when using the word. 31 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Avoid the Word “Not” Negative/Evasive/Not Sure Positive/Confident He was not very often on time. He usually came late. He did not think that studying Latin He thought the study of Latin useless. was much use. The Taming of the Shrew is rather The women in The Taming of the weak in spots. Shakespeare does not | Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is portray Katharine as a very admirable | disagreeable, Bianca insignificant. character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. APA Information xxvii The APA manual emphasizes the following writing guidelines: Orderly Presentation of Ideas—Aim for continuity in words, concepts, and thematic development from the beginning to the end of a paper (and paragraphs). Smoothness of Expression—Try to avoid ambiguity, the unexpected, omitting the expected, and suddenly shifting topic, tense, or person; aim for clear and logical communication. Economy of Expression—Only say what’s necessary. Precision and Clarity—Make sure each word means precisely what you think it means (check the dictionary often). References American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (" ed.). (2001). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Beason, Larry & Lester, Mark. A Commonsense Guide to Grammar and Usage. (2006). Boston, MA: Beford/St. Martin’s. Clinton, Bill. Second Inaugural Address, January 20, 1997. (1997). http://www.bartleby.com. “Essential Elements of the Paragraph.” Division of English as an International Language. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. (2001). http://www.deil.uiuc.edu/eslservice/units/plagiarism1 14/elementsofaparagr aph.htm 32 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook def: approximately; nearly def: the majority; a large amount/mainly; on the whole already | (adverb) <> [allready _| (adjective) def: by now; previously def: ready to go; prepared altogether _| (adverb) <—> [alltogether | (adverb/adjective) def: overall; in total def: jointly; simultaneously/calm; cool can | (verb) <> | may | (verb) def: be able to; be capable of def: might; could continual _| (adjective) <— > | continuous | (verb) def: recurrent; repetitive def: incessant; nonstop disinterested | (adjective) <—> [uninterested | (adjective) def: neutral; fair-minded def: not interested*™; indifferent e.g. | (adverb) <> |ie. [ (adverb) def: for example/Latin: exempli def: that is/Latin: id est" gratia” farther | (preposition) <—> | further | (adjective/verb) def: beyond; past def: additional; more/advance; promote imply | (verb) <—> | infer L (verb) def: involve; entail def: deduce; assume; surmise lay | (verb/adjective) <> |iie | (verb) def: put down; set/unqualified; def: recline; sit amateur set | (verb/noun) <> |sit L(verb) def: place; put/collection; def: be seated; lie arrangement who | (pronoun) <— | whom [ (pronoun) substitute for “he” or “she” or “they” substitute for “him” or “her” or “them” Verb Choices ¢ Tense—The need to describe events in time determines a writer's verb choices. First, a verb is chosen for meaning and context. Second a verb/its verb form is chosen to indicate “when the action in a sentence occurred.”*™" Thus, without tense in a writer's storyline, readers do not know when events: take place, took place, have taken place, had taken place, will take place, or will have taken place, nor do readers understand the order in which they’ve occurred. Present tense is most commonly used to provide information and give generalizations", whereas past tense is used to recount past events. Not 35 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook only should verbs agree with subjects (nouns), but also subject/verb combinations should be parallel, or match, in sentences and sentence combinations. Examples: o Lars drives his older truck whenever he goes to the ranch. (Lars/drives = he/goes) o Javier prepared a great Italian dinner, and he served expensive Italian red wine. (Javier/prepared = he/served) o Donald shopped at the Bourse when he visited Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (Donald shopped = he visited) o Jeffrey likes to eat cheese and croissants daily whenever he travels to Paris. (Jeffrey likes to eat = he travels) o When we went camping, we made hotdogs and smores and drank beer. o When we go camping, we make hotdogs and smores and drink beer too. Perfect and progressive tenses are used when some event is continuous or repetitive, or when needing to describe a past event that came before another past event. Think of perfect tense as not so perfect because it needs extra verbs to help main verbs—i.e., helping verbs. Perfect tense takes some form of the helping verb “have.” Writers often get past tense mixed up with perfect tense. Next, progressive tense uses some form of the verb “be” as a helping verb for main verbs. Notice also how with progressive tense the main verbs change form—they always have an “ing” ending.” Examples: o Karen has felt much more confident about her studies ever since she hired a tutor. o Butch had visited his grandfather right before his grandfather died. o The Philippines had been governed by the United States before it became independent. o You will have eaten the most cake by the party’s end. o | have always regretted not finishing my degree. o |am working out a lot. / You are working out some. / He is working out the most. o Kevin was working out. / They were working out together. o They will be working out more often. e Passive voice versus active voice—Verbs are used in the same way for both active and passive voice, and it’s not incorrect to use one over the other. The difference is that with active voice, the subject/noun is “doing” the action/verb, whereas with passive voice the subject/noun is not directly performing the 36 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook action/verb. Verbs tend to be action words anyway, so active voice is preferred in most writing. It sounds more alive and engaging. In some cases, a writer should choose passive voice if they want to take the emphasis off of the subject/noun, or if they want to be polite*™” (like in an email message). Examples: o Coffee was spilled in the break room. You spilled the coffee in the break room. o The experiment was completed, and it was determined that eagles do fly higher than hawks. | completed the experiment, and | determined that eagles do fly higher than hawks. o The car is totaled. Harry totaled the car. ¢ Separable two-word verbs are combinations of verbs and adverbs. They can be pulled apart, and the two words can then be used separately in different parts of a sentence in relation to the object while still maintaining the same meaning. Inseparable two-word verbs are combinations of verbs and prepositions, which must stay together, or the combos will sound awkward or lose meaning. (Keep in mind that some words like “up” are both adverbs and prepositions.) Examples: o Jenny wanted to drop off the documents today. Jenny wanted to drop the documents off today. o James pulled off the business deal. James pulled the business deal off. o Gabriel made up her face. Gabriel made her face up. o Constance turned in her final draft yesterday. Constance turned her final draft in yesterday. The pirates turned against their captain. Hazel spelled out her complaints and requirements. They thought up a new arrangement. Rachel shouldn’t pass up the opportunity. 00 0 0 e Sometimes verbs are used as adjectives (a.k.a. participles). It might be second nature for many writers to use these verb forms as adjectives. However, it’s probably a good idea to know how and why verbs are used in this manner. You never know when you'll need to explain where/why you used a certain verb/adjective...even if it’s just an explanation to yourself. Keep in mind that depending on what form of a verb you use—‘ing” ending or 37 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook sentences, but also it’s important, perhaps even more so, for a writer to place modifiers appropriately. Groups of words can also modify, and these types of modifiers can include certain verb forms. For instance, “Suddenly feeling sick, Barry went home.” A modifier’s purpose is to add value to another word or set of words in a sentence. You may have heard English teachers lecture about “dangling modifiers” or “misplaced modifiers,” and these phrases might've sounded scary. A lot of ordinary people don’t understand what these phrases even mean, let alone know where to put modifiers in their sentences. So what are “dangling modifiers” or “misplaced modifiers” anyway? When someone says you have a “dangling modifier,” it means simply that your modifier is not inserted by or near the words it is supposed to be modifying. Or it can mean you don’t actually have anything in your sentence for the modifier to modify. So, your modifier is just hanging out in your sentence with nothing to do. Modifiers can either be one word or a set of words called complex modifiers, but each type of modifier must be placed close enough to whatever it’s modifying for a sentence to make sense. In the following examples examine the out of place modifier or complex modifier in the first sentences and the correctly placed modifier in the second sentences. Examples: o Sherry said that she would like to attend the gala enthusiastically. [X] Sherry said enthusiastically that she would like to attend the gala. o Kyle started to grow weary waiting for hours. [X] Waiting for hours, Kyle started to grow weary. o We've seen thirty planes almost take off since we’ve been waiting. [X] We've seen almost thirty planes take off since we've been waiting. o My brother informed me he would travel to Europe today. [X] My brother today informed me he would travel to Europe.”™" o While still a student, Microsoft recruited my sister for a job as a programmer. [X] While my sister was still a student, Microsoft recruited her for a job as a programmer." o Being able to take care of themselves now, | decided to go back to school. [X] Since my children are able to take care of themselves now, | decided to go back to school.” Wordiness & Preciseness For some writers it’s a challenge to come up with enough wordage for an essay, manuscript or report. On the other hand, for other writers words flow too easily, perhaps, and at some point these writers suddenly find themselves overwhelmed 40 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook and adrift in their own compositions. Editing then becomes a problem while lost in a sea of words. Luckily, a few remedies exist for this type of writing problem. Further, some of the following solutions also help writers who have difficulty finding enough words. Outlining e First of all, a good outline (as tedious as it may seem to put one together) makes all of the difference when starting out to write just about anything. It helps a writer stay focused and limit what they will say on paper, and at the same time, it helps a writer develop enough topics and ideas to talk about in a composition. Outline topics and subtopics easily translate to paragraphs in essays, manuscripts or reports. Paragraphing e Maintaining solid structure at the paragraph level, in and of itself, will help keep a writer from drifting off topic and/or help a writer to remember what needs to be included. If you make sure that each and every paragraph has proper elements—an introductory/topic sentence, your points backed up with evidence, and a synthesis and concluding sentence—chances are you will automatically have a better organized paper. Every level of a paper relates to and affects the next level, and the affect is not only sequential or linear. Paper Paragraphs Sentences Words Reverse Outlining e Just as outlining helps a writer streamline his or her paper as it is being written, reverse outlining helps a writer take inventory of what he or she has written so far before final editing and revision phases. Without looking at the original outline, a writer can start with a blank piece of paper and outline in reverse. There, he or she can make a short list of what’s actually in the rough draft version of his or her paper—existing topics/paragraphs and points made. 41 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook The list starts with the paper’s introduction, including the thesis statement or main idea, and ends with the conclusion and its points. It will look like any other outline except that it’s a result of post writing. After this exercise, a few things will quickly become apparent. First, if the paper has lost focus or has drifted off on a tangent somewhere, it will be revealed. Second, it’s interesting to compare the reverse outline with the original outline to see how they differ. Sometimes it ends up being a good thing if the two outlines differ as long as what’s in the reverse outline seems logical, flows and supports your overall idea. Best of all, a reverse outline can help a writer recognize and cut down on extra wording. At the same time, it can help a writer recognize where wording needs to be added. At this point, a writer can make final structural revisions to his or her paragraphs and paper if needed. Omitting & Addin After a writer has completed a few of the above steps, they can then comb through their paper at the word and sentence level to search for repetitive or unnecessary words and phrases. Begin by eliminating extra words that aren't value-added words. In other words, if you find too many empty or meaningless words that seem to fill up space more than anything, get rid of them. Obviously, a few frivolous words here and there sometimes help to spice up a paper and add style/tone, but remember, for academic writing learners don’t want to be too spicy. The goal is to find one’s voice while maintaining scholarly writing. Academic writing is usually not written in an editorial, a commentary or a blog style, nor is it a comedy, a drama or a poem (unless you’re asked by your instructor to write a play or a poem.) Omit meaningless words, such as: “actually,” “certainly,” “kind of,” “basically,” “indeed,” “fundamentally” and others. These types of words might seem as though they make sentences sound more important or serious, but “actually” too many of these types of words end up making sentences sound “kind of” pretentious or too casual. You may know of someone who starts just about every sentence with “actually” or “basically.” Doesn’t that automatically make you wonder if that person is telling the truth or if they “indeed” know what they're talking about? “Certainly,” a person using too many of these words can sound arrogant, especially in academic writing. Examples: o Actually, my investor gave me a valuable tip, and | certainly took his advice, indeed. o Karen kind of wanted to attend the meeting; she was sort of hoping to lead the project. o Basically, you start by turning your computer on. 42 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook in “person” first, such as “businessperson” or “salesperson.” After that, come up with different words that mean the same thing: “firefighter” versus “fireman.” For generic words used to describe history or modern society, it might be best to try and memorize a few or to have a thesaurus handy. Examples: o Mankind > people, humans, humanity o Mailman > mail carrier o Policeman > police officer APA When it comes to writing and producing a manuscript or journal using the American Psychological Association style, the APA manual emphasizes quality of content over anything else and insists that research be well designed and managed. All documented research/study and sources must be critically reviewed and evaluated for importance, relevance and soundness. Therefore, word choice ultimately revolves around such guidelines. Further, words or phrases that distract from scientific ideas, research and study must be eliminated, and metaphors and figurative expressions must be avoided. According to the manual, “APA accepts authors’ word choices unless those choices are inaccurate, unclear, or ungrammatical.”"™ Whenever referring to individuals or groups, APA guidelines instruct writers to “choose words that are accurate, clear and free from bias.” *"” Specifically, APA encourages writers to be sensitive to labels, gender, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity, disabilities and age and to positively acknowledge participation in research. References American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5™ ed.). (2001). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Austin, Robyn & Marshall, Alison. “Words that seem similar, but aren't.” Right Words New Zealand Limited. (2006). http://www. rightwords.co.nz/similar.html BBC. “Homophones.” bbc.co.uk: Skillswise. (2007). http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/spelling/recognising/homophones/in dex.shtml Beason, Larry & Lester, Mark. A Commonsense Guide to Grammar and Usage. (2006). Boston, MA: Beford/St. Martin’s. 45 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook “e.g.” Dictionary.com. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, (2004). http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e.g. “google.” Merriam-Webster online. (2007). http://www.webster.com/dictionary/google “i.e.” Dictionary.com. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, (2004). http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i.e. Snider, Julie. “Population change in states’ top urban areas.” (April 5, 2007). USA Today: Nation. Word Spy. Paul McFedries and Logophilia Limited. (2007). http://Awww.wordspy.com/index.asp Bibliography “e.g.” Dictionary.com. WordNet® 3.0. Princeton University. (2006). http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e.q. “Glossary of Correct Usage.” English Daily. (2007). http://www.englishdaily626.com/gocu.php Google. (2007). http:/;www.google.com/ “i.e.” Dictionary.com. WordNet® 3.0. Princeton University. (2006). http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i.e. NameSite.com: African names and meanings. (2007). http://www.namesite.com/ Wikipedia.com. Wikimedia. (2007). http://www.wikipedia.org/ 46 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Punctuation Why punctuate? In all languages, punctuation is derived from unique cultural and language conventions. Although many languages may have similarities, each language has its own set of punctuation rules. Punctuation was not always a part of languages, but now it is fundamental.” It helps to better organize and define language communication. Without punctuation, sentences would be confusing, and meaning would be misconstrued. It gives structure and foundation to language. For instance in many languages, leaving out just one comma can change the entire meaning of a sentence. Even in the language of mathematics, a misplaced comma can cause calculation errors; computer programming languages utilize punctuation marks as well, and without certain marks and syntax, a program will not run. Common Punctuation Marks Punctuation is an important aspect of the English language. It’s the adhesive that holds English words, sentences, and paragraphs together, and meaning can be completely altered based on punctuation changes. The following covers basic English punctuation rules, including some APA guidelines for Capella University learners. “Punctuation is a code to help readers ride smoothly through writing.”*™! One way to perceive punctuation is to think of the most commonly used punctuation marks as traffic signals.” Punctuation as Traffic Signals Periods = Stop Sign Question Marks = Stop Sign ~ 6e0e Exclamation Points = Stop Sign Come to a full stop. Then go on—no sliding through. 5 ee Commas = Flashing Yellow Light 47 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook Series e With a sentence that contains a series of questions. Example: o What kind of egg dishes do you like? omelet? quiche? soufflé? o What shall we eat for dinner?—pasta? Exclamation Marks @ Exclamatory Words & Phrases e An exclamation point is a more forceful version of a period, but is not typically used in academic writing unless it is part of a direct quote. Example: o Jerry exclaimed, “Stop! That hurts!” o The learner shouted, “This class is fun!” Commas 6 Commas indicate a pause within a sentence and/or are used with a conjunctive word or phrase to unite sentences. They are also used in various other ways— for separating words in a list, between phrases, or within sentences. Knowing how and when exactly to use commas can be challenging, especially since there are many uses for commas. However, several basic rules dictate comma usage, and once a writer becomes familiar enough with them, comma usage becomes much easier to grasp. Sentence Coordination & Subordination There is more than one way to unite two (or more) sentences, but the only time a comma is used to join sentences (or independent clauses) is when it is used with a coordinating or subordinating conjunction. e When using one of the seven coordinating conjunctions or FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to combine sentences, add a comma before it. Sentence Coordination Examples: 50 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook o Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train. © | will shop at the Galleria this afternoon, and | will use my new credit card. o That is not what | meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt. o | was scheduled to leave London last night, but the flight was cancelled. o The game will be rescheduled, or it resume after the rain has stopped. o The sunis shining brightly, yet raindrops are starting to fall. o You finished your work early, So you can go home now. When using a subordinating conjunction, a comma is placed just after the first clause. These clauses are similar to introductory phrases or clauses and begin with subordinating conjunctions or word(s). Sentence Subordination Examples: o Because she has saved money, Betty will fly to the Bahamas this weekend. o Since Harry met Sally, he no longer wants to date others. o Although he spent many years saving money, Jim does not have enough for retirement. o After Jim retires, he will get a part-time job. o Because he loved surfing, he refused to give up his dream of moving to Hawaii. o Unless we take action now, all is lost. In the first example, without the word because, the sentence could stand alone—“She has saved money.” However, the two sentences are joined because they are related, and with the word “because” added to the beginning of the first sentence, a dependency is created between the two clauses. “Because she has saved money’”...would definitely not be complete on its own, and a reader or listener seeing/hearing just that phrase alone would naturally wonder what follows. Further, the sentence examples from above could just as easily be switched around with the subordinating conjunction placed instead in the middle joining the two clauses, and a comma would then NOT be necessary. Subordination as Coordination Examples: o Betty will go to the Bahamas this weekend because she has saved money. 51 0 Caretta University Grammar Handbook o Heno longer wants to date others since Harry met Sally. o Jim does not have enough for retirement although he spent many years saving money. o Jim will get a part-time job after he retires. o He refused to give up his dream of moving to Hawaii because he loved surfing. o Allis lost unless we take action now. The meaning or emphasis changes just slightly when the above sentences are switched around. Therefore, how a writer chooses to combine phrases— either with coordinating conjunctions or subordinating conjunctions or with some other method (i.e., semicolon, dash)—will bring about different sentence results in connotation and style. Introductory Words & Phrases Very similar to the comma usage in sentence subordination (see above), most introductory words and phrases are set off by commas. Examples: c To achieve the promotion she desired, Sarah found it necessary to complete her doctoral degree. o Afterwards, James found his keys under the table. o On the other hand, you will arrive early. A good way to test for introductory words and phrases is to first identify the subject and predicate, which make up a complete sentence. For instance in the first example above, the word Sarah is the subject noun in the sentence, and the word found is the verb; therefore, by identifying the subject and predicate, the basic structure of a complete sentence is revealed. In other words, without the introductory phrase, “To achieve the promotion she desired,” the sentence could stand alone. However, the introductory phrase provides more meaning and better emphasizes why Sarah finds it necessary to complete her doctoral degree. Readers understand more her sense of urgency. When the phrase is moved to the end of the sentence instead, the description is provided, but the sense of urgency is weakened. Example: o Sarah found it necessary to complete her doctoral degree to achieve the promotion she desired. 52 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook (‘also a coordinating conjunction) Elements in a List or Series Use commas between words, phrases, or clauses forming a series (a.k.a. serial commas). This helps list/series items or elements stand out. Examples: o This job involves jumping, climbing, and running. o Onroute to New Zealand, we slept in a hut in Fiji, stayed in a posh hotel in Tahiti, and camped out in the Cook Islands. Note: Using a comma between the second to last item in a list or series and the word and or the word or is usually optional, so check the conventions of your field or publisher and be consistent with your usage. APA: “Use a comma between elements (including before and and or) in a series of three or more items.”"” Examples: o the color, shape, or size © inastudy by Marx, Chaplin, and Abbott Names, Titles, Places, Dates & Numbers Separate names and titles and places with commas. Examples: o Mr.S. Stallone, CEO, will attend the banquet. o Minneapolis, Minnesota o Vancouver, BC, Canada e Casablanca, Morocco Following APA" standards, Commas are required within parenthetical in text citations to separate items. Examples: o (Mathews, 1997) o Santana (1993) explored Use a comma when addressing someone directly. Examples: 55 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook o dim, sing louder. o She's calling for you, Rachel. Commas are used for casual greetings in informal letters. Examples: o Dear John, o My sweetest Darling, Commas are inserted “between groups of three digits" (APA) in large numbers starting with 1,000. Example: 3,000,000,000 However, also according the APA" guidelines, do NOT use commas in the following: page numbers, binary digits, serial numbers, degrees of temperature, acoustic frequency designations, degrees of freedom, numbers to the right of a decimal point.“ Example: Page 1034 1000 °F — Zn Semicolons & Another way to join sentences is with a semicolon. Stronger than a comma but not as strong as aperiod, semicolons are used to link two or more related ideas. A semicolon should NOT be used to unite unequal sentence elements, but it can be used to separate items in a long list within a sentence, especially when the list calls for a list within a list (see below). Ri elated Independent Clauses Use a semicolon to join two (or more) independent but closely related clauses NOT already joined by a conjunction. Examples: o The psychologist used qualitative analysis; the economist used quantitative analysis. o Class was cancelled; you can meet with the instructor during her office hours tomorrow. Choosing to use a semicolon to combine sentences will affect meaning and emphasis. Therefore, the way in which a writer combines sentences helps 56 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook determine how the intended message will be received. For instance, pretending the following is an excerpt from a romance novel, notice how the meaning changes slightly each time. He loved her; he hated her. He loved her, but he hated her. He hated her because he loved her. Because he loved her, he hated her. He loved her; therefore, he hated her. Note: When using a semicolon and including a transition word (or conjunctive adverb), such as, therefore, however, etc., don’t forget to place a comma after the word. See the Transitional Words list in the section, Interjections. Example: o The psychologist used qualitative analysis; however, the economist used quantitative analysis. o Class was cancelled; incidentally, you can meet with the instructor during her office hours tomorrow. List Items e Use semicolons to separate items in a list when those items are themselves divided by commas (or are very long). Example: o For the holiday, we gave toys, clothes, and savings bonds to our children; toys and savings bonds to our nieces and nephews; and clothes to each other. Colons AY In general, colons are more formal. A colon indicates and emphasizes that a list or an explanation is coming up next, or that a long quote will follow. Also, a colon is used with ratios/proportions and between publication place and publisher in APA™ reference lists. List Introduction e Use a colon to introduce a list. Examples: 57 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook © will be fully explained in the report (Winter & Shultz, 2001) o The author found that, “The effect continued” (Lopez, 1993, p. 311), but she did not indicate how long it lasted. Also use parentheses to introduce abbreviations. Examples: o The University of Texas at Austin (UT) o Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Letters/numbers used to identify items in a series within sentences/paragraphs are enclosed in parentheses. Example: o “The subject areas included (a) synonyms associated with cultural interactions, (b) descriptions for ethnic group membership...”™" Parentheses are also used when grouping mathematical expressions, enclosing identified numbers for formulas and equations, enclosing statistical values, or enclosing degrees of freedom. Examples: 2 (g-1)(k-2) > F(2, 116) =3.71 Dashes Dashes are used for emphasis, to show informality, or to highlight a sharp turn in thought or abruptness. They can also replace other types of punctuation used for linking, separating and enclosing. (According to APA" standards, a writer should avoid using dashes too often since overuse can weaken a paper.) Example: o The kitchen was hot—steaming hot! Note: All of the following are correct. However, punctuation choice affects meaning. Example: © Only one person—the winner—uwill receive the grand prize. © Only one person, the winner, will receive the grand prize. o Only one person (the winner) will receive the grand prize. 60 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook Hyphens The main thing to remember about hyphens is that hyphens are not dashes. One is visibly longer than the other, and as explained in the previous section, a dash is used in various ways to punctuate and emphasize phrases and looks like this: — On the other hand, a hyphen is shorter in length and is never used in the same way a dash is used; it looks like this: — Prefixes e Hyphens are used with prefixes. Examples: o Ex-girlfriend o Self-service o Mid-August Names e Some names are hyphenated. Example: o Courtney Thorne-Smith Numbers e¢ Some compound numbers (21-99) and written out fractions use hyphens. Examples: o Ninety-seven o Three-fourths o Four and one-quarter Age Description e Use hyphens for age descriptions Examples: o Nine-year-old boy o 35-to 50-year-old alumni participants 61 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook Compound Adjectives ¢ Compound adjectives are two or more words joined by a hyphen that are used to describe a noun. Examples: o Well-meaning coworkers o Fun-loving friends Note: The APA guide suggests leaving hyphens out if meaning/definition is well- established for certain terminology found in specific disciplines/fields, such as psychology. Examples: o “grade point average” o “health care reform” o “day treatment program solxiv Ellipses e Ellipses are used to signify a pause in speech . . . or a lead into silence. Also they are used to indicate when words are deliberately left out, especially when separate parts of direct quotes are used. Example: o Lincoln said, "Fourscore and seven years ago...shall not perish from this earth." o Simmons (1999) explains that free choice often leads to teens making "poor choices...which then leads to problems at home and in school." Quotation Marks Nicknames, Titles, Poems & Quotes e In general, double quotation marks are used primarily to set off direct quotes, and they are often used to emphasize certain words, expressions and slang. Poem, song, story, chapter, radio/TV episode, and article titles are set off by quotation marks as well. Examples: 62 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook e Apostrophes also indicate possession. Examples: That’s Jerome’s book. We will go to Mary Jones’s party. It is the learners’ responsibility. Those are the sons-in-law’s. (plural possessive) 0 0 0 0 Brackets & Slashes Brackets and slash marks are seldom used; however, according to the APA’ manual, both types of punctuation are each used in specific ways for academic writing. Brackets e Brackets are used to enclose parenthetical information inserted into phrases set off parentheses. Also, they are used to enclose descriptive/explanatory information inserted by the author of the paper or manuscript into a direct quote (adding information not found in the quote). Examples: o (The final results of the test [Test B] are presented in Chart 5.) o “The city [New York] is now divided on the issue” (Hale, 2002, p. 15). Slashes e Slash marks (a.k.a. virgule) are used with hyphenated compounds for clarification and to offset English phonemes. They are used also with numbers and measurements and to cite republished work.’* Examples: o People living in this densely-populated/confined section of the community suffer from poverty and disease. (hyphenated compound) o mg/kg (measurement) o X/Y*” (separate numerator from denominator) © Smith (1864/1973) (republished work) References 65 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5” ed.). (2001). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Chuhran, David. “Editorial.” Gold Eagle. (2007). http://www.gold- eagle.com/editorials_04/chuhran020204.html Fine, Edith H. & Josephson, Judith P. Nitty-Gritty Grammar: A Not-So-Serious Guide to Clear Communication. (1998). Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. McFedries, Paul. Word Spy. Logophilia Limited. (2007). http://www.wordspy.com/index.asp Merriam-Webster Merriam-Webster Online. (2007). http:/Avww.webster.com/ Robbins, Sonia Jaffe. “Punctuation: A Brief History.” Editing Workshop, Journalism Department. New York University, Journalism Department, NYU Web (2005, January 16). http://www.nyu.edu/classes/copyXediting/Punctuation.html#history Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. (1884/1981). New York, NY: Benton Books. Verzuh, Eric. The Portable MBA: The Fast Forward MBA “Tough ideas made easy” in Project Management: Quick Tips, Speedy Solutions, Cutting-Edge Ideas. (1999). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bibliography “A Grammar Toolkit (10.).” The American Heritage Book of English Usage: A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English [Electronic version]. (1996). http://www.bartleby.com/64/10.html Amazon.com. Amazon.com. (2007). http://amazon.com/ American Psychological Association. “Electronic References.” APA Style.org. (2001). http://www. apastyle.org/elecref.html Bryson, Linda. “English Conjunctions.” English Grammar on the Web. (1997). http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwesl/eqw/bryson.htm#list%20sub “Coordination & Subordination.” Learning Support Center. Edmonds Community College, Learning Support Center. (2006). http://Isc.edcc.edu/Handouts/5-- Coordination.php English Plus. “Parenthetical Expression.” The English Plus+ Web Site. (2006). http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000355.htm 66 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook Fernald, James C. A Reference Manual for School, Home, and Office, English Grammar Simplified (Rev. ed.). (1963). New York, NY: Harper & Row. Fine, Edith H. & Josephson, Judith P. Nitty-Gritty Grammar: A Not-So-Serious Guide to Clear Communication. (1998). Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. Google. Web. Google. (2007). http:/Awww.google.com/ “Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling.” OWL Online Writing Lab. Purdue University. (2004). http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/ Hamilton, Fran Santoro. Hands-On English. (1998). St. Louis, MO: Portico Books. Learn English Network. “English Grammar — Simple Sentence Construction.” Learn English: LEO Network. (2007). http://www. learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Object Lexico Publishing Group. Dictionary.com. (2007). http://dictionary.reference.com/ Li, Rong-Chang. “Grammar.” English as a Second Language: Rong-Chang Li. (2007). http://www.rong-chang.com/grammar.htm Lynch, Jack. “Commas.” Guide to Grammar and Style. (2006). http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/index.html MacFadyen, Heather. “The Parts of Speech: What is an Adverb?” The Writing Centre: HyperGrammar. University of Ottawa. (2007). http://www. arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/adverbs.html Megginson, David. “Building Sentences.” The Writing Centre: HyperGrammar. University of Ottawa. (2007). http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/sntpurps. htm! The Online Literature Library. Literature.org. Knowledge Matters, Ltd. (2007). http://www.literature.org/ Revelle Humanities Grammar Handbook. USCD: Revelle Humanities. University of California, San Diego, Revelle College. (2007). http://humanities.ucsd.edu/writing/grammar/grammarindex.html Shaw, Harry, Jr. Punctuate It Right! (1993). New York, NY: HarperCollins. StartSpot Mediaworks, Inc. “Grammar/Style.” Library Spot. (2007). http://www. libraryspot.com/grammarstyle.htm Watkins, Thayer. “History of the Punctuation of English Writing.” applet-magic.com. (n.d.). http:/Awww.applet-magic.com/punctuation.htm 67 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook Commonly Misspelled/Confused Singular/Plural Words Singular Plural appendix appendixes cannula cannulas datum data matrix matrices phenomenon phenomena schema schemas , Capitalization e Capitalize the first letter of words that begin a sentence and that follow a colon. Example: o The first step used in the process was recorded. o The second step in the process was more difficult: Release the mouse in an open environment and time how long it takes for it to find an exit.’ e Capitalize major words in titles and articles. Do not capitalize articles, prepositions or conjunctions unless they are over four letters long. Do capitalize verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and pronouns. Also, capitalize both words in a hyphenated word. Words that follow a dash or a colon are also capitalized. Examples: o The failure of Internet companies at the turn of the century is the focus of the article, “Boom or Bust.” o Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association o “Ultrasonic Vocalizations Are Elicited From Rat Pups” e “Memory in Hearing-Impaired Children: Implications for Vocabulary Development”’ Note: Only the first word of a title, the first word after a colon or dash and proper nouns are capitalized in reference lists. Example: o Hanson, R.K., Steffy, R.A., & Gauthier, R. (1993). Long-term recidivism of child molesters.’ e Proper nouns and trade names must be capitalized. Example: 70 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook o Greco-Latin Square o Department of Sociology, University of Washington © Purina Monkey Chow! Capitalize test titles. Example: o Advanced Vocabulary Test Capitalize names of conditions, factors, variables and effects. Example: o Condition A and B © Mealtime Behavior (Factor 4)' Italics The APA manual gives specific guidelines for the use of italics in writing; however, they should not be used often—only when necessary. People who use typewriters instead of computers and word processing software can underline in lieu of italicizing. Below is a limited list of when to use italics in APA style manuscripts, journals and etc. For specific information, please refer to the APA manual (3.19). Italicize the following: Titles of books, periodicals, and microfilm publications. Examples: o The Elements of Style o American Psychologist Genera, species, and varieties. Example: o Macaca mulatta Introductions of new, technical, or key terms or labels (after a term has been used once, do not italicize it). Examples: o Backward masking (term) 7 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook o Empty (box)' Abbreviations Like the use of italics, APA encourages writers not to use an overabundance of abbreviations in their papers. Readers won’t always know what you’re referring to, especially if you have a paper full of abbreviations. When introducing an abbreviation for the first time, be sure and spell out the name, title or word first and follow it with its abbreviation in parenthesis. From that point on it’s okay to use the abbreviation only. However, in major section changes, it’s a good idea to remind readers by giving the full name, title or word again. Keep in mind, too, that readers may at first skip over previous sections, so it may be the first time they’re seeing it. e¢ Some abbreviations don’t have to be named or explained because readers generally know what they stand for. Examples: IQ REM ESP AIDS HIV NADP ACTH 0000000 e Abbreviations appearing often in APA journals may not be found in dictionaries. Even though they are used often in APA style papers, they should still be explained first. Examples: conditioned stimulus (CS) short-term memory (STM) reaction time (RT) consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) 0 000 e Latin Abbreviations used in parenthetical material: Examples: o @.g. > for example o ie. > thatis ° etc. > and so forth ¢ Scientific abbreviations include units of measurement and time. 72 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook ““' William Strunk, Jr., “III. Elementary Principles of Composition: 9. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic,” The Elements of Style, http://www.bartleby.com/14 1/strunk5.html, 1999. XxVii American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.), Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001. XXViii <e google,” Merriam-Webster online, http://www.webster.com/dictionary/google, 2007. “Robyn Austin & Alison Marshall, “Words that seem similar, but aren't,” Right Words New Zealand Limited, http://www .rightwords.co.nz/similar.html, 2006. “* “e_9..” Dictionary.com. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e.g., 2004. wa “4 e.,” Dictionary.com. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i.e., 2004. ““" Larry Beason & Mark Lester, A Commonsense Guide to Grammar and Usage, Boston, MA: Beford/St. Martin’s, 2006. wont Beason. “Y Beason. “Y Beason. “ov! Beason. “avi Beason. xviii Beason. “xX Beason. “ Word Spy, Paul McFedries and Logophilia Limited, http://www.wordspy.com/index.asp, 2007. Definition: “A person for whom no information appears in an Internet search engine, particularly Google.” “" Word Spy. Definition: “A person who attempts to maximize gas mileage by using driving techniques that conserve fuel.” *" Word Spy. “Worry or agitation caused by concerns about the present and future state of the environment.” xliii American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.), Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001. “American Psychological Association. "To find out more about the history of punctuation, see Sonia Jaffe Robbins, “Punctuation: A Brief History,” Editing Workshop, Journalism Department, New York University, Journalism Department, NYU Web, http://www.nyu.edu/classes/copy Xediting/Punctuation.html#history, January 16, 2005. *™ Edith H. Fine & Judith P. Josephson, Nitty-Gritty Grammar: A Not-So-Serious Guide to Clear Communication, Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1998. xlvii Fine. xlviii Fine. 75 0 Caretta Untversity Grammar Handbook xlix American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.), Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001. " American Psychological Association. " Eric Verzuh, The Portable MBA: The Fast Forward MBA “Tough ideas made easy” in Project Management: Quick Tips/Speedy Solutions/Cutting-Edge Ideas, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999. " Verzuh. i Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster Online, http://www.webster.com/, 2007. 'VAmerican Psychological Association. '’ American Psychological Association. h : : soe “' American Psychological Association. Ivii American Psychological Association. ‘ii’ American Psychological Association. "American Psychological Association. * American Psychological A: ' American Psychological Association. ‘i American Psychological Association. ‘il American Psychological Association. ‘American Psychological Association. Y American Psychological Association. & Verzuh Verzuh Ixviii Twain. '\ American Psychological Association. x Paul McFedries, Word Spy, Logophilia Limited, http://www.wordspy.com/index.asp, 2007. i McFedries. ‘ait American Psychological Association. ‘sll American Psychological Association. WV American Psychological Association. = American Psychological Association. 76