Neurophysiology of Sleep and Sensory Perception: An Overview, Quizzes of Biology

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TERM 1 Subcortical Structures DEFINITION 1 Structures below the cortex that control different functions TERM 2 Basal Nuclei DEFINITION 2 Collection of five structures on each side of the brain Below cortex, to the sides of thalamus Connected to each other and to cortex Postural control is non-conscious Feedback loops correct posture variations Decreased dopamine linked to Parkinson's Disease TERM 3 Thalamus DEFINITION 3 Recieves sensory input from the opposite side Directs and edits input to cerebral cortex About 98% of input blocked from reaching the cortex Cortical focus allows information through, thalamus One type of autism may be due to lack of thalamic editing TERM 4 Hypothalamus DEFINITION 4 Controls homestatic functions Temperature, thirst, milk relesase, hunger, reproductive urges, circadian rhythms, increases emotional feelings HT sees what is wrong, cortex decides what to do TERM 5 Limbic System DEFINITION 5 Ring of structures underneath cortex of cerebrum Detects emotions and memory formation Hippocampus is part of limbic system TERM 6 Emotions DEFINITION 6 Feelings about things Reproductive drive, rage, fear, motivation Cortical Decision's = Few connections to cortex-limited cortical control of emotions Can't make emotions just go away, take time Cortical control is over reponses-limited input of limbic system to motor areas-- no compulsory action TERM 7 Neurotransmitters DEFINITION 7 Norepinephrine , Dopamine and Serotonin are NTs in the limbic system Altered concentrations of NTs have been associated with depression-- Anti-depressants use receptors for these NTs Excess dopamine had been linked to schizophrenia-- limites L-Dops Parkinsons treatment TERM 8 Memory DEFINITION 8 Retention, storage amd ability to recall information Memory traces are sequences or neural activations Declarative Memory- fats: events, words languagem rules --hippocampus and temporal lobe for storage Procedural Memory- unconscious physical skills, habits, tasks cerebellum plays major role TERM 9 Short Term Memory DEFINITION 9 Seconds to Hours Alter activity in existing neurons in hippocampus TERM 10 Long Term Memory DEFINITION 10 Creation of new synapses and memory traces Make multiple copies of important memories over years Retain youthful memories as you age Transfer from hippocampus to cortex TERM 21 Sleep DEFINITION 21 Low frequency activity in hypothalamus + thalamus -> sleep Reason needed unknown TERM 22 EEG Patterns DEFINITION 22 Slow wave patterns in EEG give slow wave sleep its name EEG pattern during REM sleep similar to being awake TERM 23 Slow Wave Sleep DEFINITION 23 4 stages, each progressively deeper over about 75 minutes cycle Circadian rhythynm -> increase adenosine -> sleep \ Caffeine blocks adensine reponse Aleep factor: muramyl dipeptide -> strong sleep inducer TERM 24 Rapid Eye Movement (Paradoxical) Sleep DEFINITION 24 15 minutes long, at the end of a slow wave sleep cycle Paradoxical sleep-hard to awaken, most likely to wake self High visual cortex, low frontal, high memory area-- dream illogical New synaptic contacts made --> increase long term memory Will make up missed REM sleep TERM 25 Spinal Cord DEFINITION 25 Neural tissue, encased in vertical column Carriers APs between brain and body Gray matter in the middle, cell bodies and interneurons White Matter on the outside , myelinated neural tracts TERM 26 Tracts DEFINITION 26 Bundles of neural axons that carry APs Ascending tracts carry APs toward the brain Descending tacts carry APs from brain to efferent nerve TERM 27 Dorsal Roots DEFINITION 27 Entry points for afferent neurons to the spinal cord, bilateral Afferent cell bodies are in te dorsal root ganglia TERM 28 Ventral Root DEFINITION 28 Carry efferent APs out of the spinal cord Cell bodies of efferent neurons in the gray matter TERM 29 Reflexes DEFINITION 29 Neural response without a conscious input TERM 30 Reflex Arc DEFINITION 30 Receptor- afferent neuron-CNS- efferent neuron- effector CNS portion may have 1 or 2 more synapses Effectors are muscles and glands Monosynaptic reflex- multiple synapses Interneurons between afferent and efferent neurons TERM 31 Withdrawl Reflex DEFINITION 31 Polysynaptic reflex Multiple neurons between afferent and motor neurons Prolonged responses and feedback Very strong reflex, but with potential CNS input TERM 32 Stretch Reflex DEFINITION 32 Muscle length information Monosynaptic reflex- knee jerk Activation of afferent-neuron produces relfex response through synapse to efferent neuron No control by upper CNS TERM 33 Sensory Receptors- Sensation DEFINITION 33 Connect an environmental sinal to the body Transduction is the conversion of a stimulus to a physiological signal The brain converts the physiological signal into a perceived sensation TERM 34 Stimulus DEFINITION 34 Environmental signal Binds and changes a receptor-- signal now in body Each receptor binds one stimulus best TERM 35 Sensation DEFINITION 35 Conscious senses- 5 senses, also time Unconscious- position, temperature, BP change TERM 46 Fast Pain DEFINITION 46 Sharp localized passes quickly Fast, myelinated afferents--glumate NT TERM 47 Slow Pain DEFINITION 47 Diffuse, dull long lasting Slow unmyelinated afferent, slow pain neurons TERM 48 Opioid Receptors DEFINITION 48 Natural analgesics block pain by binding to opioiod receptors Activation alters ion channels and membrane potential TERM 49 Enkephalins/Endorphins DEFINITION 49 Peptides, multiple types, differnt sizes Short half-life assec Morphine-Effective for hours TERM 50 Chemical Senses DEFINITION 50 Molecular binding to receptors Flavor: combination of smell and taste TERM 51 Taste DEFINITION 51 Molecules dissolve in salvia and reach taste bud receptors to be tasted TERM 52 Taste Buds DEFINITION 52 Receptors at taste pore Tight Junction keep saliva away from rest of taste bud Surrounding epithelical cells- basal cells-> receptor cells TERM 53 Neural Tracts DEFINITION 53 Sensory neurons send taste information Neurons to thalamus-- parietal lobe, "what" taste Neurons to limbic system-- "like" it? TERM 54 Taste Receptors DEFINITION 54 Salty- Na+ Sweet- organic sugars Acid, sour- H+ Bitter- bases (quinine)-cations, poisons, most sensitive receptors Umami-glutamate (MSG) TERM 55 Smell DEFINITION 55 Olfactory mucus membrane on roof of nasal cavity Greater than 1000 different odor receptors Largest gene family greater than 10% of human genome Molecules must diffuse through mucus (H2O soluble) and bind to receptor to activate Must be volatile enough to float to top of cavity TERM 56 Olfactory Receptors DEFINITION 56 Part of dendrites of olfactory neurons-- covered by mucus Neurons turn over every few weeks Unusual: dendrites as receptors, new neurons TERM 57 Olfactory Adaption DEFINITION 57 Unusual: Receptors primarily tonic Unusual: Most adaptation in CNS-brain can overcome adapation Adapation to one smell does not effect others TERM 58 Structure of the eye DEFINITION 58 Designed to recieve light and produce electrical signals TERM 59 Cornea DEFINITION 59 Clear, non-cellular front of the eye Light passes through, not refracted ( bent) TERM 60 Lens-Ciliary body DEFINITION 60 Lens refracts light to focus on retina C.B. has muscles parrallel to lens Muscle contraction allows lens to round up-focus near Muscle relax for distance vision TERM 71 Lateral Geniculate DEFINITION 71 Recieves information from ganglion cells Edits information to cortex TERM 72 Visual Cortex DEFINITION 72 Multiple areas in occipital lobe Integrates input of visual perception Relative positions -- 3D images TERM 73 Accomodation DEFINITION 73 Change in lens thickness alters focal point for near and far focus Ciliary muscles control focus TERM 74 Presbyopia DEFINITION 74 Lens gradually hardens over decades Hardening reduces rounding of lens for near vision At ~40 -45 years old, difficulty focusing on near objects Reading glasses, bi focus TERM 75 Myopia DEFINITION 75 In ability to focus on retina Near-signtened, eyeball too long, focus in front of retina TERM 76 Hyperopia DEFINITION 76 Far-signtened, eyeball too short focus behind retina Corrective lenses, laser surgery on cornea TERM 77 Rhodopsin DEFINITION 77 Visual pigment in rod cells Combination of opsin and retinene (Vitamin A derivative) Light hits retinene and partically splits in torm opsin (bleaching) Opsin now active- G protein system- recycles 14/sec system changes membrane potential-release NT Retina rebinds to opsins, awaiting new light TERM 78 Color Vision DEFINITION 78 3 different opisons with retinene Shading of reinene limits frequency range- peaks at red (also sees yellow), green and blue wavelength TERM 79 Color Blindness DEFINITION 79 One opsin missing Can't distinguish certain wavelength with equal activation of remaining opsins TERM 80 Outer Hearing DEFINITION 80 Little amplification Direction Detention TERM 81 Tympanic Membrane DEFINITION 81 Overlapping membrane Separates outer and middle ears Vibrates to external air waves TERM 82 Middle Ear DEFINITION 82 Air filled Amplifies sound 20x TERM 83 Ear Bones DEFINITION 83 Malleus-incus-stapes Hammer-anvil-stirrup Carry waves from tympanic membrane to oval window TERM 84 Eustachian Tube DEFINITION 84 Drains middle ear of fluid Equalizes air pressure between middle ear and sinuses Normally closed-if unopenable, tubes needed in eardrum TERM 85 Oval Window DEFINITION 85 Membrane-connects middle ear to inner ear TERM 96 Nerve Deafness DEFINITION 96 Damage to hair cells or auditory nerve Needed cochlear implant to treat Frequency deafness: loud, repetitive sounds at one frequency pull out hair cells in one place -- selective hearing loss TERM 97 Equilibrium DEFINITION 97 Vestibular apparatus- detect changes in motion TERM 98 Rotational Acceleration DEFINITION 98 3 semicircular canals at right angels to one another Fluid-filled- as fluid lags motion, fluid pulls on hair cells TERM 99 Semicircular Canals DEFINITION 99 Hair Cells imbedded in cupula-inertia generates GP-> AP TERM 100 Linear Acceleration DEFINITION 100 Hair cells imbedded in gell with otliths Accelerationas pulls on hair cells Gravity constant-tonic signal, know postion of head TERM 101 Utricle-Saccule DEFINITION 101 Detect linear acceleration U: horizontal S: vertical motion Ruismatch of signals-> motion sickness excess (rides) or loss (space flight) TERM 102 Sympathetic Structure DEFINITION 102 Part of Autonomic nervous Sympathetic chain ganglia parallel spinal cord Input from cord, medulla, hypothalamus No direct cortical control TERM 103 Preganglionic Neurons (Sympathetic) DEFINITION 103 Short neurons Use Acetylcholine (Ach) as NT to post-ganlionic neurons in ganglia TERM 104 Postganglionic Neurons (Sympathetic) DEFINITION 104 Long neurons Activated by pre-gonglionic neurons Use Norephrine (NE) as neurotransmitter Adrenal medulla behaves like post-G neuron TERM 105 Sympathetic Responses DEFINITION 105 Respond to emergencies TERM 106 Fight-or-Flight Response DEFINITION 106 Designed to remove danger Increase blood flow to skeletal muscle and heart Concurrent activation of motor units Decreased of digestive and related functions TERM 107 Receptor Types DEFINITION 107 All bind NE from post-ganglionic neurons TERM 108 Alpha DEFINITION 108 Adrenergic receptors Cause increase in tissue activity Alpha 1 - increases IP3- increase Ca2+ release from SR- increase Ca2+ Alpha 2- decrease cAMP- decrease Ca2+ pump - net increase Ca2+ TERM 109 Beta 1 DEFINITION 109 Adrenergic receptors Increase Ca2+ in heart- open Ca2+ channels Increase heart activity TERM 110 Beta 2 DEFINITION 110 Increase cAMP - increase Ca2+ - increase Ca2+ decrease blood vessel contraction and decrease lung Bronchiole constriction = more blood, more air TERM 121 NMJ Poisons DEFINITION 121 Inhibit diaphragm-can't breath Black Widow spider vonem- release all Ach Botulnum Toxin- blocks Ach release Curane blocks Ach receptors TERM 122 Striated Muscle Structure DEFINITION 122 Skeletal-connects to 2 tendons-tendons attach to bone Cardiac-smaller cells- attached end-to-end TERM 123 Muscle Fibers DEFINITION 123 Cell=Fiber Runs length of muscle in skeletal muscle Changes size ( thickness) but no mitosis TERM 124 Striations DEFINITION 124 Lines in skeletal and cardic muscle Due to filaments lined up in register Filaments overlap-overlap increase during muscle contraction TERM 125 Dark and Light Bands DEFINITION 125 Dark bands contain thick filaments, may also have thin filaments Light bands have NO think filaments, only thin filaments TERM 126 Sarcomere DEFINITION 126 Unit of Contraction, Z line to Z line Thin filaments are anchored to Z lines Thick filaments connect to thin filaments during contraction What one sacromere does, all do TERM 127 Thin Filaments DEFINITION 127 Action polymer backbone- double standarded helix Tropomyosin-long thin protein polymer runs along action Troponin-binds to tropomyosin TERM 128 Thick Filaments DEFINITION 128 Myosin polymer of filamentous protein Extension of myosin is crossbridge Crossbridge head can bind to actib and granite force TERM 129 T-tubuler/Sacrcoplasmic Reticulum DEFINITION 129 T-Ts are invaginations of muscle membranes, carry APs into muscle fiber interior SR develops from ER, stores Ca2+ Connected to T-T by voltage sensitive protein AP down T-T open Ca2+ channels in SR TERM 130 Excitation-Contraction Coupling DEFINITION 130 Electrical events leading to muscle contraction TERM 131 Skeletal Action Potential DEFINITION 131 Starts at NMJ synapse NT (ACh) binds to receptor opens Na+ channels starts AP spread in both directions TERM 132 Release of Calcium DEFINITION 132 At t-tubule, AP travels inward-alters protein in tubule leading to opening Ca2+ channels in SR near T-T Ca2+ released Ca2+ pumps at far end of SR resequesters Ca2+ and causes relaxation TERM 133 Troponin-Calcium Binding DEFINITION 133 Ca2+ binds to troponin on thin filaments TERM 134 Tropomyosin Shift DEFINITION 134 Ca2+ bound troponin causes tropomyosin to shift into actin groove, exposing A-M binding site TERM 135 Actin-Myosin Binding DEFINITION 135 A and M connect Myosin already has ATP bound and converted to ADP-Pi, with ADP*Pi still bound TERM 146 Falloff at Short Length DEFINITION 146 Thick filaments compression against Z line Thin filaments overlap and interfere with rach other Reduced Ca2+ release TERM 147 Force-Velocity Relation DEFINITION 147 Heavy loads can only be moved slowly Light loads are moved quickly TERM 148 Inverse Relation DEFINITION 148 High Force (load) -> low velocity Low Force (load) -> high velocity TERM 149 Stretched Muscles DEFINITION 149 Stretching before activation (windup) uses top of L-T curve Better force maintenance Also, activating stretch reflexes -> reflex contraction of stretched muscle TERM 150 Power Curve DEFINITION 150 From F-V curve Power -F x V At F=O, P=O; At V=O, P=O At all others, F xO is postive, must have maximum - Stretching active muscle can hold ~1.5 x FO before yeilding TERM 151 Muscle Energy Use DEFINITION 151 Progressive use of energy resource TERM 152 Phosphocreatine DEFINITION 152 Supports about 20 sec of full activity PCr + ADP -> ATP + Cr by creatine kinase reaction ATP -> ADP + Pi by myosin ATPase PCr -> Cr + Pi net reaction Pi inhibits myosin ATPase ( M * ADP * Pi -> M + ADP + Pi) TERM 153 Glycolysis DEFINITION 153 ~2 min of energy use Glucose and glycogen in muscles -> pyruvate -> lactate No oxygen use TERM 154 Oxidative Phosphorylation DEFINITION 154 Krebs Cycle and electron transport system ~ 2 hours or energy support Pyrvate -> CO2 Oxygen used Carbohydrate loading increases glycogen storages, incrreased by up to 30% TERM 155 Fiber Types DEFINITION 155 Variations in fiber type even within some muscle Controlled by motor nueron -- must muscles are mixed TERM 156 Red Fibers DEFINITION 156 Also called slow oxidative High mitochondria levels -slow myosin ATPase -slow down High energy capacity, low energy use - no fatigue TERM 157 White Fiber DEFINITION 157 Also called fast glycolytic Few mitochondrial- fast myosin ATPase -fast speed Low energy capacity- high energy use - easily fatigued TERM 158 Hypertrophy DEFINITION 158 Larger cells, not hyperplasial (more cells) High intensity. high force exercise needed for maximum effect TERM 159 Filament Number DEFINITION 159 High Intensity exercise causes micro damage to filaments Disassembly to tangled filaments increase free myosin and causes pain Free myosin causes increase in expression of filament forming enzyme0more filaments bigger cells Young people - 48 hours (24 disassembly, 24 bigger cells) Elderly 72 hours cycle TERM 160 Testosterone Dependence DEFINITION 160 Filament production optimized by testosterone Females with normal hormones cannot maximize muscle size TERM 171 Gamma Motor Fibers DEFINITION 171 Efferents to intra fusal fibers Contract muscle portions of intrafusal fibers TERM 172 Coactivition DEFINITION 172 Dual activitation of alpha and gamma motor neurons Alpha motor neurons contracts muscle fibers Gamma motor neurons contract intra fusal fibers Keeps muscle spindles taut TERM 173 Reciprocal innervation DEFINITION 173 Inhibition of paaired muscle when stretch reflex occurs Afferent neurons -> interneuron -> IPSP to paired alpha motor neuron TERM 174 Golgi Tendon Organ DEFINITION 174 Muscle force detectors Receptors in tendon-afferent input proportional to muscle force At very high forces, GTO sends IPSPs to alpha motor neurons Protecive effect TERM 175 Smooth Muscle Structure DEFINITION 175 Small cells linked by desmosomes No striations Filaments parrallel but not in register TERM 176 Filaments DEFINITION 176 Thin filaments: actin and tropomyosin, no troponin TM in groove, no AM blocking TERM 177 Dense Bodies DEFINITION 177 Smooth muscle equivalent Z lines Anchored to cell membrane, also in interior Thin filaments attach here and pull ends of cell TERM 178 Tone DEFINITION 178 Force with no stimulus Ca2+ leaks in and particularly activates smooth muscle Important in BP maintenance holding cavity contents Very important Small force with latch- low energy cost to maintain BP Force can go up or down form tone level TERM 179 Smooth Muscle Contraction DEFINITION 179 Different control mechanism than straited muscle Ca2+ also activated TERM 180 Calcium Sources DEFINITION 180 Most: though channels across cell membrane Some: small SR, released by IP3 TERM 181 Myosin Light Chain Kinase DEFINITION 181 Ca2+ activated Adds phosphate to myosin light chains Activate myosin ATPase for shortening and force TERM 182 Force Generation DEFINITION 182 Myosin*ADP*Pi ( with MLC-P) binds actin- ADP and Pi leave Myosin twists, generates force Filaments slide to reduce force This part similar to striated muscle TERM 183 Myosin Light Chain Phosphatase DEFINITION 183 MLCPase removes phosphate from myosin light chains Turns off myosin and causes relaxation when Ca2+ is low TERM 184 Latch DEFINITION 184 Removal of Pi from light chain when AM attached decreases M detachment rate Maintains force with little energy use Allows BP maintainance with low energy use, allows upright postion TERM 185 Smooth Muscle Types DEFINITION 185 Vary with function: emptying cavities or maintaining force