Research Methods: Observation, Sampling, Questionnaires, and Experimental Design, Quizzes of Psychology

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TERM 1 Positive Correlation DEFINITION 1 Means that higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with higher scores or levels of another variable TERM 2 Negative Correlation DEFINITION 2 Means that higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with lower scores or levels of another variable TERM 3 Measuring Correlation DEFINITION 3 Coefficient of Determination Pearson's R Magnitude TERM 4 Pearson's R DEFINITION 4 Is a statistic that measures the direction and strength of the linear relation between two variables that have been measured on an interval or ratio scale TERM 5 Spearman's rho DEFINITION 5 Is used to measure the relation between two quantitative variables when one or both variables have been measured on an ordinal scale TERM 6 Coefficient of Determination DEFINITION 6 R^2For two variables X and Y the coefficient of determination r^2 informs us about the extent to which differences among the X scores predict (statistically account for) differences among the Y scores, based on the linear relation between the two variables TERM 7 Magnitude DEFINITION 7 Weak: 0.10-0.29Moderate: 0.30-0.49Strong: >0.50 TERM 8 Scatterplot DEFINITION 8 A graph in which data points portray the intersection of X and Y values TERM 9 Bidirectionality Problem DEFINITION 9 Ambiguity about whether X has caused Y or Y has caused XIt is also possible that each variable influences the otherKeep in mind:1. Covariation of X and Y. As X changes, Y changes2. Temporal order. Changes in X occur before changes in Y3. Absence of plausible alternative causes. Other than the changes in X, there are no changes in other factors that might reasonably have produced the changes in Y TERM 10 Third Variable Problem DEFINITION 10 A third variable Z may be the true cause of why X and Y appear to be related TERM 21 Disguised vs Undisguised Naturalistic Observation DEFINITION 21 Based on whether the individuals being studied are aware that they are being observed TERM 22 Observer Bias DEFINITION 22 Occurs when researchers have expectations or other predispositions that distort their observations TERM 23 Reactivity DEFINITION 23 Occurs when the process of observing (or otherwise measuring) behavior causes that behavior to change TERM 24 Participant Observation DEFINITION 24 The observer becomes part of the group or social setting being studied TERM 25 Ethnography DEFINITION 25 A qualitative research approach that often combines participant observation with interviews to gain an integrative description of social groups TERM 26 Structured Observation DEFINITION 26 A researcher fully or partly configures the setting in which behavior will be observedSometimes can be called analogue behavioral observation TERM 27 Recording Observations DEFINITION 27 Narrative records: provide an ongoing description of behavior that is used for later analysis Field notes: less comprehensive than narrative records; observers use them to record important impressions or instances of behavior Behavioral coding systems: which involve classifying participants' responses into mutually exclusive categories, are a major component of many observational studies Observer rating and ranking scales: are used to evaluate participants' behavior or other characteristics Diary: asks participants to record their behaviors or experiences for defined periods of time or whenever certain events take place TERM 28 Focal Sampling DEFINITION 28 Is used to select a particular member (or unit, such as parent-infant dyad) who will be observed at any given time TERM 29 Scan Sampling DEFINITION 29 At preselected times the observer rapidly scans each member of a group, so that the entire group is observed within a relatively short period TERM 30 Situation Sampling DEFINITION 30 Is used to establish diverse settings in which behavior is observed, which in turn increases the external validity of the findings as compared to sampling behavior in only one setting TERM 31 Time Sampling DEFINITION 31 Is used to select a representative set of time periods during which observations will occur TERM 32 Population DEFINITION 32 Refers to all the cases or observations of interest to us TERM 33 Survey DEFINITION 33 Uses questionnaires and interviews to gather information about people TERM 34 Sampling frame DEFINITION 34 A list: names, phone numbers, addresses, or other units, from which a sampling will be selected TERM 35 Representative Sample DEFINITION 35 Reflects the important characteristics of the population TERM 46 Self-Selected Samples DEFINITION 46 Occurs when participants place themselves in a sample, rather than being selected for inclusion by a researcher TERM 47 Purposive Sampling DEFINITION 47 Researchers select a sample according to a specific goal or purpose of the study, rather than at random Expert Sampling: the researcher identifies experts on a topic and asks them to participate Snowball Sampling: people contacted to participate in a survey are asked to recruit or to provide contact information (names, locations) for other people who meet the criteria for survey inclusion TERM 48 Steps in Developing a Questionnaire DEFINITION 48 Reflect upon your research goals and convert them into a list of more specific topics that you want to learn about Identify variables of interest within each topic Consider the practical limitations of the survey Develop your questions, decide on their order, and get feedback from mentors or colleagues Pretest your questionnaire Revise the questionnaire as need and if possible pretest the revised version before conducting the survey TERM 49 Open-ended question DEFINITION 49 Asks people to respond in their own terms TERM 50 Closed-ended question DEFINITION 50 Provides specific response options TERM 51 Inter-rater reliability DEFINITION 51 Occurs when different raters using the same coding system agree on how they classify or otherwise score participants' responses TERM 52 Likert scale DEFINITION 52 Measures people's attitudes by combining scores on several items, each of which records how positively or negatively a person feels about a statement TERM 53 Leading Questions DEFINITION 53 Unbalanced and can overtly or subtly suggest that one viewpoint or response is preferable to anotherEx: Do you support the university's reasonable proposal to raise tuition by $100 per year in order to modernize campus computer facilities? TERM 54 Loaded Questions DEFINITION 54 Use emotionally charged words that, once again, suggest that one viewpoint or response is preferable to anotherEx: Would you favor or oppose a law banning restaurants from serving foods that contain dangerous, heart damaging trans- fats? TERM 55 Double-barreled Questions DEFINITION 55 Ask about two issues within one question, forcing respondents to combine potentially different opinions into one judgementEx: Do you agree or disagree that alcohol use and marijuana use are a problem among today's college students? TERM 56 Double Negatives DEFINITION 56 Cause confusionEx: Do you agree or disagree that, once people reach the age of adulthood, it is not possible for them to change their undesirable personality traits? TERM 57 Experimental Control DEFINITION 57 Includes the ability to:1. Manipulate one or more independent variables2. Choose the types of dependent variables that will be measured, and how and when they will be measured, so that effects of the independent variables can be assessed3. Regulate other aspects of the research environment, including the manner in which participants are exposed to the various conditions in the experiment TERM 58 Confounding Variable DEFINITION 58 A factor that covaries with the independent variable in such a way that we can no longer determine which one has caused the changes in the dependent variable TERM 59 Between-Subjects Design DEFINITION 59 Different participants are assigned to each of the conditions in the experiment TERM 60 Random Assignment DEFINITION 60 Usually used for between subjects designA procedure in which each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any one of the conditions in the experiment TERM 71 Matched-Groups Design DEFINITION 71 Each set of participants that has been matched on one or more attributes is randomly assigned the various conditions of the experiment (or matched-pairs design) TERM 72 Subject Variable DEFINITION 72 A personal characteristic on which individuals vary from one another TERM 73 Natural-Groups Design DEFINITION 73 A researcher measures a subject variable, forms different groups based on people's level of that variable, and then measures how different groups respond on other variables TERM 74 Is a natural-groups design an experiment? DEFINITION 74 Some researchers refer to such variables as selected independent variables or as quasi-independent variables, to distinguish them from manipulated independent variables. Others reserve the term independent variable only for variables that are manipulated TERM 75 Random Sampling DEFINITION 75 A procedure in which each member of a population has an equal probability of being selected into a sample chosen to participate in a study TERM 76 Goal of Random Sampling DEFINITION 76 To select a sample of people whose characteristics are representative of the broader population from which those people have been drawn TERM 77 Random Assignment DEFINITION 77 Used to determine the specific condition to which each participant will be exposed TERM 78 Goal of Random Assignment DEFINITION 78 To take whatever sample of people you happen to put together and place them in different conditions in an unbiased way so that, at the start of the study, the researcher may assume that the groups of participants in the various conditions are equivalent, overall, to one another TERM 79 Order Effects (Sequence Effects) DEFINITION 79 Occur when participants' responses are affected by the order of conditions to which they are exposed TERM 80 Progressive Effects DEFINITION 80 Reflect changes in participants' responses that result from their cumulative exposure to prior conditions TERM 81 Carryover Effects DEFINITION 81 Occur when participants' responses in one condition are uniquely influenced by the particular condition or conditions that preceded it TERM 82 All-Possible-Orders Design (or Complete Counterbalancing) DEFINITION 82 The conditions of an independent variable are arranged in every possible sequence, and an equal number of participants are assigned to each sequence TERM 83 Latin Square DEFINITION 83 Is an n (number of positions in a series) x n (number of orders) matrix in which each condition will appear only once in each column and each row TERM 84 Random-Selected-Orders Design DEFINITION 84 From the entire set of all possible orders, a subset of orders is randomly selected and each order is administered to one participant TERM 85 Why do researchers need to expose participants to each conditions more than once? DEFINITION 85 For practical reasons To examine the reliability (consistency) of participants' responses To extend the generalizability of the results