Brain Disorders and Psychological Development: From Infancy to Adulthood - Prof. Robert Ca, Study notes of Psychology

Download Brain Disorders and Psychological Development: From Infancy to Adulthood - Prof. Robert Ca and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Exam 2 Study Guide CHAPTER 8 – DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFESPAN Terms to define and Names: - Developmental Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan. - Neonatal Period- first 28 days of life. - Infancy-1st year, stage, trust vs. Mistrust. If needs are dependently met, infants develop a sense of basic trust. - Childhood- - Adolescence-the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence - Puberty-a period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. - Adulthood- difficult to generalize an age as each idividual becomes an adult at a different stage. Adulthood is one long plauto between childhood and oldage - Senescence- growing old - Visual Cliff- test given to infants to see if they have developed depth perception. - Jean Piaget- developed the stages of cognitive development. (1930) - Cognition- all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. - Schema- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information - Assimilation- interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s exsisting schemas. - Accommodation- adapting one’s current understandings(schemas) to incorporate new information. - Adaptation- when an organism better adjust to its habitat. - Play- - Imitation-the act of copying - Alzheimer’s Disease- a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language and finally, physical functioning. Object Permanence- The awareness that things - Erik Erikson- theory of identity or ones sense of self, the adolescents task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. - Menarche- First menstrual period - Crisis and Virtue - Germinal Stage - Zygote- the fertilized egg, it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and development into an embryo. - Embryo The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. - Embryonic Stage weeks 2 through 8 after fertilization - Fetal Stage- 9 weeks to birth - Teratogens-agents such as chemicals and viruses. That can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)- physical and cognative abnormalities in children caused by pregnant women’s heavy drinking. Sever cases include facial misproportions - Rooting reflex- baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek to turn toward the touch, open mouth and search for the nipple. - Habituation- decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. - Maturation- biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. - Imprinting- the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. - Critical Period- an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. - Harry Harlow- body contact“rared monkeys: with two artificial mothers. One with nourishment and the other with zero nourishment but comfy cloth. Animals preferred cloth - Morality- wrong and developing character-the psychological muscles a crucial task of childhood and adolesence in discerning right from for controlling impulses. “to be a moral person..to think morally, to act morally” - Menopause - Cross-Sectional Study- a study in which people of different ages are compared with another - Longitudinal Study- research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. - Cohort Effect- - Survivor Effect - Crystallized Intelligence- ones accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. - Fluid Intelligence- ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. - Gerontology- study of old people - Senility- the study of being sentile. Or weakness of thought. - Andropause- male menapause continue to exisit even when not preceived -- Sensorimotor Intelligence- piagets theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Identity Development- - Stranger Anxiety- the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning about 8 months of age. - Attachment-an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregiver and showing distress on seperation. - Centration- - Irreversibility - Conservation - ‘Baby mathematics’ - Egocentrism- in Piaget’s theory the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view. - Theory of Mind- peoples ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict. - Libido- sex drive. - Sigmund Freud Concepts to Understand: - Aspects of young animals (body ratios) - Basic Prenatal Development zygote: conception to 2 weeks embryo: 2 weeks through 8 weeks fetus: 9 weeks to birth o Genetics, DNA, etc.. (in book) - Piaget’s Stages of Development (when and what skills) o Sensorimotor Period Stage of Development Typical ages Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Sensorimotor Birth- 2 years Expierencing the world through senses and actions(looking, touching, mouthing, grasping) Object permanence Stranger Anxiety Preoperational 2-6yrs Representing things with words and images, use intuitive rather than logic Pretend play Egocentrism Language development Concrete operational 7-11 years Thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Conversation Mathematical Transformations Formal Operational 12- adulthood Abstract reasoning Abstract logic Potential for mature and moral reasoning. Terms to define and names: - Learning- a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience - Behaviorism- the view that psychology 1. should be an objective science 2. Studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1. But not with 2. - John Watson- viewed psych as objective science recommended study of behavior w/o reference to unobservable mental process - Association- our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence. (Aristotle 2000 years ago and John Locke and David Hume) - Associative Learning- learning to associate two events, - Classical Conditioning- A type of learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences(as in operant conditioning) - Ivan Pavlov- “classical conditioning” Russian physican, - Acquisition- the initial stage in classical conditioning, the phrase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulis comes to elicit a conditioned response. - Extinction- diminishing of a CR, in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS. - Spontaneous Recovery- a reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR - Generalization- tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses - Discrimination- In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS. - Operant Conditioning- type of learning in which behavior is strenghthend if followed for reinforcement or diminishing if followed by punishment. - Law of Effect- Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences beome more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely - Operant behavior- Operates (acts) on environment, produces consequences - Respondent Behavior- occurs as automatic response to stimulus - B.F. Skinner- elaborated thorndikes law, developed behavioral tech. - Skinner Box- chamber with a bar or key that an animal must manipulate to get food. - Reinforcer- any event that strengthens the behavior it follows - Punishment- aversive effect that decreases the behavior that it follows. - Primary reinforcer- innately reinforcing stimulus i.e. satisfies a biological need. - Vicarious Conditioning- - Biological Preparedness Concepts to Understand: - Different Parts of Classical Conditioning and how they all work together to facilitate learning o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that unconditionally-automatically and naturally triggers. o Unconditioned Response(UCR)- unlearned, naturally occurring response to an UCS. o Neutral Stimulus- something that could be noticed by another sense. Such as seeing or hearing when referring to taste. o Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- originally irrelevant stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger conditioned response. o Conditioned Response (CR)- learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus. - Little Albert o What was this process? What specifically did he learn? - Types of Operant Conditioning (These are tricky, learn them really well. This is usually on the exam.) o Positive reinforcement- increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimui that when presented after a response, strengthens the response. o Negative reinforcement- increasing behaviors by stipping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that when removed after a response, strengthens the response ( negative reinforcement is NOT punishment) o Positive punishment- ie. Spanking or a parking ticket. o Negative punishment- time out from privileges such as TV. - Schedules of Reinforcement o Continuous: the desired response is reinforced everytime in occurs. o Partial- Sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. - Fixed Ratio vs. Variable Ratio Reinforcement (can you give examples?) Fixed Ratio= reinforce behavior a set number of times. For every 30 cookies made you get paid. Variable ratio= provides reinforces after a unpredictable number of responses. You get paid every hour no matter how many cookies you produce. - Steps in the Process of Modeling - CHAPTER 6 – MEMORY Terms to know and Names: - Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. - Hermann Ebbinghaus - Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system. - Storage- the retention of encoded information over time. - Retrieval- process of getting information out of memory. - Sensory Memory: the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. - Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. - Echoic Memory: momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli - Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information, space, time, frequency - Effortful Processing: requires attention and conscious effort. - Visual Encoding: encoding of picture images - Acoustic Encoding: encoding of sound - Semantic Encoding: encoding of meaning - Short-Term Memory (magic #): activiated memory that holds a few items briefly. - Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units. - Rehearsal: conscious repetition of info - Consolidation: - Spacing Effect - Serial Position Effect - Imagery - Mnemonics - Long-Term Memory - Declarative Memory - Recency effect - Flashbulb Memory - Explicit Memory - Hippocampus - Implicit Memory - Clyde Werring (what did he show?) - Recall: measure of memory in which the person must retrieve. - Recognition: measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned. - Relearning: memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time. - Priming: activation often unconsciously of particular association in memory. - Déjà vu: already seen, I’ve experienced this before. - Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event. - Source Amnesia: attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. - Infantile Amnesia: - False Memory Syndrome: condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience. - Mood-congruent Memory: Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current mood. - State-Dependent Memory: what is learned in ones state (high/drunk) can be more easily remembered in the same state. - Forgetting: can occur at any stage in memory. - Retrieval Failure: - Proactive interference: disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info. - Retroactive Interference: without interfering events, results are better. - Motivated forgetting: people unknowingly revise memories. - Repression: defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories. - Primacy Effect - Hindsight Bias Concepts to Understand: - Four types of memory 1. Long term 2. Short Term 3. Sensory Memory 4. Working memory - How do retrieval cues work? Cues come from the association of when the expierence took place can be words in addition to expierence. - How are memories constructed? They are encoded. - What is the Forgetting Curve? - How can brain damage facilitate forgetting? o Retrograde vs. Anterograde Amnesia - How can forgetting be an interference? - Ways to improve memory: schedule spaced study times, actively rehershing information over time instead of all at once. CHAPTER 7 – THINKING AND LANGUAGE (intelligence is not on this exam) Terms to Define and names: - Cognition: the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing remembering and communicating. - Cognitive Psychologists: study of internal mental processes. - Artificial Intelligence: the capacity of a computer to perform operations analogous to learning and decision making in humans, as by an expert system, a program for CAD or CAM - Computer Neural Networks: - Concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people - Prototype: a mental image or best example of a category. - Scripts: letters or characters written out to form a word. - Reasoning - Deductive Reasoning: reasoning from cause to effect.