Glossary of Political Science and Sociology Terms, Quizzes of Introduction to Sociology

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TERM 1 perverse incentives DEFINITION 1 reward structures that lead to suboptimal outcomes by stimulating counterproductive behavior; for example, welfare - to the extent that it discourages work efforts - is argued to have perverse incentives TERM 2 unintended consequences DEFINITION 2 result of a policy that were not anticipated fully at the time of implementation - particularly outcomes that are counter to the intentions of the policymakers TERM 3 recession DEFINITION 3 a period of economic contraction lasting two or more quarters (half a year or more) TERM 4 culture of poverty DEFINITION 4 the argument that poor people adopt certain practices which differ from those of middle-class, "mainstream" society in order to adapt and survive in difficult economic circumstances TERM 5 underclass DEFINITION 5 the notion, building on the culture of poverty argument, that the poor are not only different from mainstream society in their inability to take advantage of what mainstream society has to offer, but also are increasingly deviant and even dangerous to the rest of us TERM 6 absolute poverty DEFINITION 6 the point at which a household's income falls below the necessary level to purchase food to physically sustain its members TERM 7 relative poverty DEFINITION 7 a measurement of poverty based on a percentage of the median income in a given location TERM 8 parenting stress hypothesis DEFINITION 8 a paradigm in which the psychological aspects of poverty exacerbate household stress levels; this stress, in turn, leads to detrimental parenting practices such as yelling, shouting, and hitting, which are not conducive to healthy child development TERM 9 politics DEFINITION 9 power relations between people or other social actors TERM 10 authority DEFINITION 10 the justifiable right to exercise power TERM 21 meritocracy DEFINITION 21 a society where status and mobility are based on individual attributes, ability, and achievement TERM 22 power DEFINITION 22 the ability to carry out one's own will despite resistance TERM 23 domination DEFINITION 23 the probability that a command with specific content will be obeyed by a given group of people TERM 24 domination by economic power DEFINITION 24 as defined by Weber, domination "by virtue of a constellation of interests" or "by virtue of a position of monopoly" TERM 25 domination by authority DEFINITION 25 the willing obedience of the ruled to the commands of legitimate authority TERM 26 state DEFINITION 26 as defined by Weber, "a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a given territory." Hidden under any form of domination by authority - and by extension, any state - is the threat of violence (e.g. "The Godfather") TERM 27 coercion DEFINITION 27 the use of force to get others to do what you want TERM 28 paradox of authority DEFINITION 28 although the state's authority derives from the implicit threat of physical force, when the state resorts to physical coercion to enforce its will, all legitimate authority, or authority that does not use force to secure compliance, is lost. TERM 29 international state system DEFINITION 29 a system in which each state is recognized as territorially sovereign by fellow states TERM 30 principle of noninterference DEFINITION 30 principle by which each state tacitly agrees to mind its own business when it comes to the internal affairs of other sovereign countries TERM 31 social policies DEFINITION 31 policies developed to meet social needs TERM 32 welfare state DEFINITION 32 a system in which the state is responsible for the welfare of its citizens TERM 33 citizenship rights DEFINITION 33 the rights one has as a citizen of a nation TERM 34 civil rights DEFINITION 34 the rights guaranteeing a citizen's personal freedom from state interference, including freedom of speech and the right to travel freely TERM 35 political rights DEFINITION 35 the rights guaranteeing a citizen's ability to participate in politics, including the right to vote and the right to hold an elected office TERM 46 nonmaterial culture DEFINITION 46 values, beliefs, behaviors, and social norms TERM 47 material culture DEFINITION 47 everything that is a part of our constructed environment, including technology TERM 48 ideology DEFINITION 48 a system of concepts and relationships, an understanding of cause and effect TERM 49 cultural relativism DEFINITION 49 taking into account the differences across cultures without passing judgment or assigning values TERM 50 cultural scripts DEFINITION 50 modes of behavior and understanding that are not universal or natural TERM 51 subculture DEFINITION 51 the distinct cultural values and behavioral patterns of a particular group in society; group having social, economic, or ethnic traits distinctive enough to distinguish it from others within the same culture or society TERM 52 values DEFINITION 52 moral beliefs TERM 53 norms DEFINITION 53 how values tell us to act TERM 54 socialization DEFINITION 54 the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as a member of that society TERM 55 reflection theory DEFINITION 55 the idea that culture is a projection of social structure and relationships into the public sphere, a screen onto which the film of the underlying reality or social structures of our society is projected TERM 56 media DEFINITION 56 any formats or vehicles that carry, present, or communicate information TERM 57 hegemony DEFINITION 57 a historical process in which a dominant group, by virtue of its moral and intellectual leadership in society, secures the voluntary "consent" of the masses TERM 58 consumerism DEFINITION 58 the steady acquisition of material possessions, often with the belief that happiness and fulfillment can thus be achieved TERM 59 culture jamming DEFINITION 59 the act of turning media against itself. Culture jammers view advertisements as propaganda and use the same images to show a different message TERM 60 stereotype DEFINITION 60 a type of logical oversimplification in which all the members of a class or set are considered to be definable by an easily distinguishable set of characteristics TERM 71 spurious DEFINITION 71 false or misleading TERM 72 reverse causality DEFINITION 72 a situation in which the researcher believes that A results in a change in B, but B, in fact, is causing A TERM 73 dependent variable DEFINITION 73 the outcome that the researcher is trying to explain TERM 74 independent variable DEFINITION 74 a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable TERM 75 hypothesis DEFINITION 75 a proposed relationship between two variables TERM 76 operationalization DEFINITION 76 the process of assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined for use in a particular study TERM 77 null hypothesis DEFINITION 77 the claim that the relationship proposed between two variables does not exist TERM 78 alternative hypothesis DEFINITION 78 the opposite relationship between two factors as compared to the initial one proposed TERM 79 moderating variable DEFINITION 79 a factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables TERM 80 mediating variable DEFINITION 80 a factor that is positioned between the independent and dependent variable, but does not interact with or affect the relationship between them TERM 81 validity DEFINITION 81 the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure TERM 82 reliability DEFINITION 82 likelihood of obtaining consistent results using the same measure TERM 83 generalizability DEFINITION 83 the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied TERM 84 reflexivity DEFINITION 84 analyzing and critically considering our own role in, and affect on, our research TERM 85 population DEFINITION 85 an entire group of individual persons, objects, or items from which samples may be drawn TERM 96 historical methods DEFINITION 96 research that collects data from written reports, newspaper articles, journals, diaries, artwork, and other artifacts that date to a prior time period under study TERM 97 comparative research DEFINITION 97 a methodology by which two or more entities (such as countries), which are similar in many dimensions but differ on one in question, are compared to learn about the dimension that differs between them TERM 98 experimental methods DEFINITION 98 methods that seek to alter the the social landscape in a very specific way for a given sample of individuals and then track what results that change yields; often involve comparisons to a control group that did not experience such an intervention TERM 99 audit study DEFINITION 99 a specific type of experimental method in which a pair of comparable people are observed in a specific situation to see if they fare differently TERM 100 content analysis DEFINITION 100 a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication, such as a written work, speech, or film TERM 101 manifest content DEFINITION 101 content that we can observe TERM 102 latent content DEFINITION 102 content that is implied but not stated outright TERM 103 "do no harm" DEFINITION 103 the notion that by participating in the study, a research subject will encounter no more harm than he or she likely would in everyday life TERM 104 informed consent DEFINITION 104 the right of a research subject to know they are participating in a study and what the study will consist of TERM 105 voluntary participation DEFINITION 105 the right of a research subject to decide if he or she wants to participate in a study; also implied in this notion is the idea that the subject can stop participating at any time without repercussion TERM 106 protected populations DEFINITION 106 groups that a researcher often needs additional approval to study, such as minors, prisoners and other institutionalized individuals, pregnant women and their unborn fetuses, and the disabled TERM 107 public sociology DEFINITION 107 the practice of sociological research, teaching, and service that seeks to engage a non-academic audience for a normative, productive end