Polygamy and Religion: A Cultural Exploration - Prof. Stephen Zolvinski, Study notes of Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

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ATH 175 Final Study Guide MARRIAGE AND FAMILY Gender Imbalance in India & China 1) Selective-Sex Abortion (India) 2) [[ abortion of female babies (sex-selection) ]] - sexist attitudes - modernization - attraction - response 1) Sexist Attitudes of Traditional Society? 2) - male heir preferred to continue “patrilineage” - dowry to attract suitors for marriageable daughter 1) S-S Abortion: Modernization 2) - s-s abortion popular with: --> educated moms, middle classes, wealthy business families - economic liberation --> foreign companies market ‘ultrasound’ --> easy credit allows clinics to purchase ultrasound --> clinics market selective sex technologies 1) Attraction of S-S Abortion 2) Upper-Class: - can afford to pay for procedure - want to be seen as “modern” - want male heir to keep wealth/resources within patrilineage Poorer People: - not popular - more children is an economic necessity 1) India’s Response 2) Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act of 1994 (PNDT) - bans doctors from revealing fetus’ sex - absconds clinic ultrasounds upon violation - rarely enforced Government child support to the poor - families get double rupees for girls’ care 1) One-Child Policy (China) 2) [[ policy limits couple to one child (1979) ]] - policy adjusted for rural areas to allow a second child, if 1st is a girl - strictly enforced in urban areas --> less so in rural areas - heavy fines per extra child - denied workplace bonuses 1) Implications of Policy 2) - child-raising --> parents & 4 grandparents indulge single child; “little emperor” --> high emphasis on educational success elevates girls’ status - long-term: elderly welfare --> care of unmarried son’s parents --> care of unmarried son in elder years 1) Surplus Men in Asia: Speculations 2) - only wealthy men can afford wives - trafficking in women - increase in rapes - increase in wars? Macho values need an outlet Marriage 1) Importance of Marriage 2) - a society has to reproduce itself for security of its members: young & old - marriage provides for: --> regulation of sexual relations --> reproduction & rearing of children --> enculturation of those children - a wedding is a celebration of continuation of a society and its culture 1) Marriage Ideas 2) Western: - private matter between man and woman - two freely consenting adults, or “free choice” - requires emotional attachment Non-Western: - joins two families - requires relatives’ consent - emotional attachment NOT required 1) West vs. East Differences On: - love & romance - sexual activity - cohabitation - reproduction & child rearing - sharing joys & burdens of life 1) Long Houses (Melanesia) [[ a house that the native amazon people live in... it can hold up to about 10 - compensation for loss of daughter’s services - makes future children full members of male’s descent group 1) Dowry 2) [[ goods that female brings into the new household ]] - compensates man’s family for taking on the added responsibility - today social problem: “Dowry Deaths” in India 1) Bride Service 2) [[ male works with woman’s family for period before wedding ]] Post-Martial Residence Rules 1) Post-Martial Residence Rules 2) - Patrilocal: with/near husband’s parents (70%) - Matrilocal: with/near wife’s parents (13%) - Avunculocal: with/near husband’s mother’s brother (2-7%) - Bilocal: couple can choose between mother’s or father’s relatives - Neolocal: couple sets up own household (5%) Zadruga in Bosnia (Case Study) 1) Zadruga in Bosnia 2) [[ household group that takes precedence over nuclear family ]] - formed of 1 family or clan of several - keeps property + herd + money together - composition: senior male & wife --> adult married siblings & children --> unmarried adult offspring 1) Zadruga Living Arrangements 2) - married couples have sleeping room - common sleeping room for children > age 12 - 3 meal settings for men, women & kids - all share common property & clothes - adults discipline all children - children stay with Zadruga even after divorce 1) Zadruga Household Segmentation 2) - senior male dies --> eldest son becomes head - sons later divide property under Islamic law --> brothers: equally --> sisters: 1/2 --> mother: 1/8 Nayar (Nair) Tarawad in India 1) Tarawad 2) [[ female-headed household in Kerala State, India ]] - matrilineal / Nayar (Nair) 1) Tarawad Structure 2) - ritual marriage: after three days, man & woman return to separate tarawad - men are warrior caste, often away to fight - women have multiple sex partners - children reside with mother - paternity never an issue - women return “marriage” ornament at “husband’s” funeral 1) Tarawad Current Social Effects 2) - British abolished tarawad during colonialism --> but women’s status remained relatively high Today: - 1st Indian state to be 100% literate - 90% women in work force - relatively travel-safe state for women -------------------------- RELIGION & CULTURE Definitions 1) Magic 2) [[ rituals, chants, spells performed (to manipulate supernatural forces) for desired effect ]] - NOT skilled illusion for entertainment - James George Frazier suggested it was 1st stage to development of religion -> science 1) Contagious Magic 2) [[ type of magic involving physical contact with object of good fortune ]] - based on belief that contact will transfer good fortune for your benefit - ex. turtle heads on sundial @ Miami 1) Imitative Magic 2) [[ type of magic that is performed similar to desired outcome ]] - ex. Christian baptism 1) Animatism 2) [[ belief in impersonal supernatural force that can effect outcomes in visible/ tangible world ]] - doesn’t display human-like qualities - R.R. Marett argued animatism was 1st religion --> ex. western concept of “luck” --> ex. Luke Skywalker’s “force” 1) Animism 2) [[ belief in supernatural force with humanlike qualities ]] - spiritual being is invisible - Edward Burnett Tylor argued animism was 1st religion --> ex. ghosts, souls, spirits --> a.k.a. supernatural beings 1) Mana 2) [[ sacred/impersonal force found in Melanesian/Polynesian religions of South Pacific Ocean ]] - characterized as “animatism” - R.R. Marett concluded animatism was 1st form of religion based on his Melanesan studies 1) Monotheism 2) [[ belief of only one God ]] 1) Polytheism 2) [[ belief/worship in more than one god ]] 1) Syncretism 2) [[ blending of cultural traits ]] - often involves religious practices 1) Revitalization Movement 2) [[ religious movement intended to revive traditional culture stressed by foreign domination ]] --> ex. cargo cults of Melanesia --> ghost dance in Western US 1) Wounded Knee 2) [[ last armed conflict b/w U.S. Army & Native Americans ]] - occurred at Wounded Knee, S.D on Pine Ridge Reservation - December 29, 1890 1) Wovoka (Jack Wilson) 2) [[ the person whose vision initiated Ghost Dance revitalization movement ]] - a Paiute Native American of Nevada - January 1, 1889 Theories of Religion 1) Religion 2) [[ beliefs & rituals concerned w/ supernatural beings, powers & forces ]] (said by Anthony F.C. Wallace) --> outside the observable world; not measurable --> belief of an effect in this world --> accepted on basis of “faith 1) Syncretism 2) [[ the blending of one or more cultural traits, many times involving religion, but also art & music ]] - world view changes to permit incorporation of new forms/symbols into existing belief system --> ex. x-mas tree - Haiti: Voodoo --> blend of West religion & Christianity --> ex. Danbella, “serpent deity” renamed from St. Patrick 1) Chinese Religious Syncretism in Southeast Asia 2) 1) Western view: excludes other belief systems 2) Chinese view: inclusive of many belief systems - religious sources: --> chinese gods(eases)/taoism/buddhism/christianity/etc - chinese-christian adaptions: --> “lucky” days for weddings --> display lucky characters on doors --> employ feng shui in house-building --> offerings to Tudi Gong (Earth God) at groundbreaking 1) Chinese Reasons for Adapting Christianity 2) - belief that all religions are good & teach morality (Confucian idea) - cannot disprove existence of spirit world... safer to believe than not believe - doesn’t hurt to get help from various religious sources - pluralistic nature of Filipino society --> tolerance for foreign elements Revitalization Movements 1) Revitalization Movement 2) [[ religious movement intended to revive a traditional way of life for a people stressed by foreign domination ]] - a.k.a. Millenarian Movement - features: --> rapid change: people exposed to unfamiliar culture, customs & objects --> source of change: foreign domination... people feel culturally inferior --> relative material deprivation 1) RM: Prophet Emerges 2) - prophet has revelation - revelation explains what’s wrong + vision for new world - revelation prescribes way to revive culture - a new ritual emerges, who syncretizes traditional practices with dominating powers’ symbols 1) RM: Cargo Cults (Melanesia) 2) - based on “cargo” or shipping goods - colonial situation - europeans bring material goods - feasting & prestige cultures: Leaders (Big Men) hold feasts to redistribute agricultural produce - local people work for Europeans & expect wealth to be redistributed 1) RM: What CC Got 2) - low wages on plantations - ask themselves: Europeans use what kind of ritual to obtain material goods? - rituals emerge based on material goods 1) RM: CC Rituals 2) - build airplane control tower, use tin cans to establish radio contact - 1932: Buka Solomon Islands, built docks for cargo - take on U.S. names --> i.e. John Frum cult (soldier); Prince Philip, UK, & US President Lyndon Johnson 1) RM: CC Effects 2) - doomed to disappointment; Europeans didn’t go away - cults create “social solidarity” across multilingual islands to resist colonialism - cults basis for modern political parties & labor movements in post- independence 1) RM: CC + Functions of Religion 2) 1) Cognitive/Intellectual: explains how to remove Europeans & obtain “cargo” 2) Psychological: gives hope for future & relieves anxiety about colonial domination 3) Sociological: provides basis of group organization to confront colonialism 1) RM: THE GHOST DANCE 2) - last armed conflict b/w US Army & Native Americans @ Wounded Knee, SD, 1890 - extensive historical record of founding 1) RM: Ghost Dance Revelation 2) - Jack Wilson’s Revelation on Jan 1, 1889 (total eclipse of sun) --> meets God in vision --> crust will cover earth to destroy settlers + Indians following settler ways --> indians who abandoned settlers’ ways, led pure lives & performed Ghost Dance would be saved --> buffalo and ancestors would return to live in peace & joy --> no need for armed uprising, world would change by itself by following ritual prescription 1) RM: Ghost Dance Lakota Rendition 2) - shirt will resist bullets - dance with rifles - overall dance takes on military content - white people & govt. officials disturbed by intensity of dance - US Govt. bans Ghost Dance 1) RM: US Gov’t Response to Ghost Dance 2) - “impending Indian outbreak”—govt. officials’ message to Washington D.C. - November 1890—troops dispatched to Pine Ridge Reservation, S.D. - Dec. 15– Chief Sitting Bull arrested & killed - Dec. 28—Big Foot & band camp at Wounded Knee, SD, to to negotiate annual rations distribution 1) RM: Ghost Dance Aftermath 2) - Ghost Dance transforms into various forms: --> New Tidings Religion, Saskatchewan (Alice Beck Kehoe) - 1973: Cheyenne Lakota occupy Wounded Knee seeking US recognition of 1868 treaty --> 71-day occupation; Ghost Dance performed --> FBI & federal agents surround Wounded Knee in standoff --> shots fired, two Indians killed, including Buddy Lamont & Vietnam Veteran --> AIM leaders, Russell Means & Dennis Banks, taken into custody --> charges dropped on grounds of government misconduct 1) RM: Ghost Dance as Religion 2) 1) Psychological --> relieved anxiety about difficult times 2) Cognitive/Intellectual --> gave meaning to changing social conditions 3) Sociological --> kept Sioux bonded together during difficult times 1) Al-Qaeda as RM? 2) - time of rapid change due to oil-rich economies - leader emerges: Osama bin-Laden - offers vision: eradicate Western influence, follow pure extreme Islam - no ritual, but direct action through violent acts APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY Worlds of Development 1) First World [Developed] 2) [[ Western countries following capitalist model of development ]] --> “The North,” Developed Countries - former colonizers - liberal democratic traditions --> i.e. parliamentary/ presidential political systems 1) Second World 2) [[ countries following a communist model of development ]] Who’s Doing Development 1) Governmental Agencies: 2) - U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) 1) Nongovernmental organizations (NGOS): 2) [[ privately supported foundations not receiving government assistance ]] - ex. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation, Habitat for Humanity, Doctors Without Borders 1) Multilateral Agencies 2) [[ organizations that receive support from various gov’ts & apply it to various nations ]] - UN Organizations --> UN International Children’s Fund (UNICEF) - World Bank --> loans for large-scale projects, dams, roads, schools, agriculture - International Monetary Fund (IMF) - short-term --> short-term credit to alleviate nations’ balance-of-payments difficulties Green Revolution 1) Green Revolution 2) [[ using science + technology to improve crop production in developing world ]] - new seeds: High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs); “miracle seeds” - corn, wheat & rice - semi-dwarf varieties: shorter stem; nutrients make larger grain - new seeds require fertilizers, chemicals, irrigation 1) Dr. Norman Borlaug 2) [[ Father of Green Revolution ]] - Agricultural Scientist - invited to India, 1950s - 1960s-70s: international agricultural research centers established 1) International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) 2) - fighting the Cold War with agricultural research 1) Miracle Seeds Results 2) - Mexico --> 1943: imported half its wheat --> 1963: wheat exporter - Developing World Today --> 52 % wheat acreage in HYV --> 54 % rice acreage in HYV 1) Indonesia: Richard Franke (1974) 2) - Green Revolution in Java, Indonesia - calories: -250g, Protein: -5g - other evidence: physical weaknesses, vulnerable to sickness & diseases 1) Indonesia: Early Green Revolution 2) Bottom-Up Development for Rural Areas: - Bogor Agricultural College Pilot Project - students live & work in villages --> to teach new agricultural techniques --> to listen to farmers’ concerns - program expanded to 200 villages in 1964 - students advocate for farmers --> corrupt officials steal fertilizer --> students document theft in letter to officials --> fertilizer returned 1) Indonesia: 2nd Phase Green Revolution 2) Shift to Top-Down Approach: - military government takes over (1965-66) - multinational corporations tasked to conduct development—distribute “miracle seeds” --> small farmers go into debt to buy fertilizers & chemicals --> better-off farmers could afford fertilizers & chemicals - smallholders lose land --> launch landlessness & rural-urban migration - richer farmers discourage small farmers to have cheap labor in fields. Franke’s Study Village (1971): --> 20% of village households owned 40 % of land --> no small landowners participate in new technologies 1) Indonesia: Lessons 2) Triumph of Science? - technology alone is not a magic bullet - economic & social structures prevent farmers from accessing new technologies --> is technology affordable to poor farmers? --> if not, are affordable loans available and products easily procured? --> can programs be implemented equitably without interference from powerful interests? - if “no,” rich = richer, poor = poorer - “blaming the victim syndrome”