Final Exam Study Guide - Principles of Biology with Laboratory | BISC 104, Study notes of Biology

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BIO Cell Theory: smallest unit of life is cell All living things are made of cells Cells arise only from other cells Microscopes: Light: uses light Electron: uses electrons, greater mag, better detail SEM: view outside of cell TEM: slice of specimen, view inside of organism, no living specimens Types of cells: Prokaryotic: smaller, no nuclear membrane or membrane bound organelles, bacteria & archea Eukaryotic: bigger, nuclear membrane, non-/membrane bound organelles, animal/plants In ANIMAL CELL, not plant: Lysosomes, centrioles, flagellum In PLANT CELL, not animal: Cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole Membrane: Structure/Function Selectively permeable, made of 2 layers of phospholipids (head is hydrophobic, tails are hydrophilic), proteins embedded in bilayer, organize chemical activities Manufacturing:  nucleus- double membrane, continuous w/ ER, contains chromatin which is made up of DNA + protein, nucleolus- ribosomal RNA + proteins= makes ribosomes  ribosomes- 2 subunits, involved in making proteins, some attached to roughER, some free  endomembrane system: many organelles related by this (nuclear env, ERs, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane), smooth ER- makes lipids, detox (liver), calcium storage (muscles), rough ER- has ribosomes, makes proteins, assembly line: ribsome attaches, goes into ER, pinches off in transport vesicle which goes to…  golgi- transport vesicle enters, post office (receive, sort, send), pita bread Breakdown: o peroxisomes- I don’t think they’re important, not part of endomembrane o lysosomes- budded off golgi, housekeeper: sacs of digestive enzymes, digest carbs, fats, eat damaged organelles, o vacuoles- sacs of material (water, toxins, pigment), protists- contractile vacuole to pump out water Energy Processing:  mitochondria- glucose  H2O + CO2 + energy, have own DNA (can reproduce alone), mitochondria disorderes result in fatigue  chloroplasts- double membrane, photosynthesis: energy + H2O + CO2  glucose, own DNA (self reproduce) Support, Movement, Communication:  cytoskeleton- network of protein fibers running through cytoplasm to aid in cell movement & send info, microfilament- thinnest, muscle movement, intermediate filament- thinner, ropelike, structure support, microtubule- thin hollow tube, mitosis Specialized Structures: Centrioles- organize spindle apparatus Cilia/flagella- outside cell to help in movement Eukaryotic Cell Surfaces: Cell interact via their surfaces, extracellular matrix- communication, glycoproteins: collagen & others Cell junctions: tight- to prevent leaks, gap- to allow transfer b/t cells, anchor- hold plasma membranes together (skin) The Working Cell Energy, Enzymes, Membranes: living cells are compartmentalized by membranes membranes are sites where reactions occur (catalyzed by enzymes) living cells process energy by enzyme catalyzed reactions  enzymes: in membranes or membrane bound areas  membrane: organization and division of labor membrane proteins jobs: integrins embedded in membrane, transmit info glycoproteins: recognition metabolism, reception, transport, passive transport: no energy, diffusion: from high to low concentrate, osmosis: water from high to low concentrate facilitated diffusion: helped by membrane protein (integrin), allow large things to go through active transport: uses energy, from low to high concentration membrane sacs move large particles through membrane Energy: the capacity to do work Cell respiration: glucose + O  CO2 + H2O, loses energy through heat and in ATP during 2 types of chem reactions: exergonic: produces energy, endergonic: absorbs energy (metabolism is these combined) Reactions- need to reach energy of activation to get started Enzymes- most are proteins, substrate is what fits into enzymes, glove & hand, Affects enzymes: temp, pH, salt, confacters (help), inhibitors (competitive/noncompetitive) good & bad CELL DIVISION Create new cells to repair, grow, reproduce Prokaryotic cells- asexual, identical offspring Eukaryotic cells- way more genes than Pro, mitosis produces 2 identical daughter cells, miosis produces 4 gametes (sex cells) o chromatin- DNA + protein loose and unraveled o when chromosomes are duplicated it produces 2 identical sister chromatids joined at centromere o homologous pairs- carry same types of genes, but different alleles, same size/shape o Diploid: 2 of each chromo (homologous pairs) 2n = 46 o Haploid: 1 of each pair (homologue) n=23 Mitosis: growth,, repair  Interphase: Grow, Duplication, Grow  Prophase: see chromosomes, spindle is forming nuclear env breaks down, spindle attaches to chromos at kinetochore  Metaphase: chromosomes in middle  Anaphase: division of chromos, centromeres divide/sister chromatids separate, chromos move to opposite sides  Telophase + Cytokinesis: nuclear env forms, spindle break down, division of cytoplasm  Result: 2 diploid cells (identical) Controls over cell division: Anchorage dependence- euk cells need to be attached to something to grow Density dependent inhibition- can only grow in one layer Growth factors- proteins can signal cells to divide Cancer- cells out of control Meiosis: sexual reproduction, produces gametes, division happens twice Meiosis I- separate homologues  Interphase: chromo duplication  Prophase I: synapsis (line up gene for gene) crossing over  Metaphase I: lining up, independent assortment (each pair lines up, deciding who goes where)  Anaphase I: separate homologues  Telophase I + Cytokenesis: nuclear env comes back, spindle retract, cyto splits, now have 2 haploid cells Meiosis II- separate sister chromatids  Prophase II: nuclear env break down, spindle form, see chromos PCR- polymerase chain reaction, test tube system for DNA amplification, uses primers, heat stable DNA polymerase, target DNA is copied, quickly results in billions of copies of a target sequence Gel electrophoresis- separates DNA molecules by size STR analysis- short tandem repeat, short sequence of nucleotides is repeated - isolate NDA - use PCR to amplify nucleotide sequence - separate fragments - analyze Evolution: change in frequency of alleles in gene pool Population= members of a species in a particular place at a particular time Comparative anatomy: Homologous structures: same structure, diff function Vestigial structures: no present day function (human appendix, whale pelvis) Analogous structures: same function, diff structure (suggests separation looong time ago) Comparative embryology: common features in development Hardy Weinberg equation problems P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 Freckles are dominant. 49% of population do not have freckles. What percent of population is heterozygous? Q2= .49 >> take square root and q=.7 P+q=1 so p+.7=1 so p=.3 Heterozygous =2pq= pq=(.7)(.3)=.21x2=.42=42%=answer P2=DD 2pq=Dd Q2=dd Natural Selection not always perfect Adaptive compromise: male peacocks have the bright plumage, good for mating not for camouflage Sometimes individuals do not survive by chance Ultimate source of all genetic variation is mutation CIRCULATION Some don’t do circulation: they have direct exchanges b/t cells and enviro, flatworms, jellyfish, Types of circulatory systems: Open: a heart pumps blood through open ended vessels into spaces between cells Closed (cardiovascular): a heart pumps blood through arteries and capillary beds, blood returns to heart via veins Single circulation: atriumventriclesarteriesgill capillariesveinsatrium Double circulation: Pulmonary circuit: carries blood between heart and lungs Systemic circuit: carries blood between the heart and rest of body Mammalian Cardiovascular system: double circulation, four chambers, two sides Human Heart: muscular pump, size of fist, 4 chambers, valves Blood circuit: 1) right ventricle pumps oxygen-poor bloodto the lungs via 2) the pulmonary arteries 3) blood flows through capillaries in lungs, takes up oxygen and unloads CO2, oxygen-rich blood flows back through 4) pulmonary veins to 5) left atrium. Oxygen-rich blood flows from left atrium into 6) left ventricle which pumps blood to systemic circuit. Blood leave left ventricle through 7) aorta: largest blood vessel, branches to 8) head, chest, arms. Aorta descends into abdomen, supplying oxygen-rich blood to abdomen and legs 9) oxygen-poor blood from upper body goes to superior vena cava, from lower body goes to inferior vena cava which empty into the 10) right atrium Cardiac Cycle - diastole: blood flows from veins into heart chambers - systole: atria briefly contract, ventricles fill with blood, ventricles contract, blood propels out cardiac output: the volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute Blood Vessels: structure and function Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood, wider, not as much pressure, layers of tissue and muscle not as thick Blood pressure: keeps blood moving, affected by heart rate Systolic pressure: heart contracts (higher pressure) Diastolic pressure: heart relaxes Capillaries: allow transfer of substances through their walls, BLOOD: moving liquid tissue, cells suspended in plasma, controls temp, pH, osmotic balance, hormones, immune system, 5L in adult, Red blood cells most abundant, then white, then platelets, Atherosclerosis: diameter of artery shrinks Stroke: lack of blood flow to brain DIGESTION All animals need to eat, source of energy, potential chemical energy and nutrients stored in our food - ingestion: the act of eating - digestion: the breaking down of food into molecules small enough for body to absorb. 2 phases o mechanical- chewing o chemical- hydrolysis using enzymes - absorption- cells lining the digestive tract absorb products of digestion, most nutrients absorbed in small intestine - elimination- undigested material is passed out of digestive tract gastrovascular cavitiy: digestive compartment with single opening (mouth) alimentary canal: digestive tract with two openings (mouth and anus)