Final Exam Study Guide - Psychology of Learning | PSYC 2044, Study notes of Psychology

Download Final Exam Study Guide - Psychology of Learning | PSYC 2044 and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! STUDY GUIDE FOR FINAL EXAM - A-B-C, Consequence is controlling the behavior. - Consequence is any event that follows a behavior - Consequence of behavior, something that follows a behavior and is contingent on the behavior - Contingent: It is dependent on - Reinforcers vs. Punishers - 3 Characteristics of Consequences to make them effective 1. Immediacy (soon) 2. Certainty 3. size (large) - Extinction: Purpose is to permanently lower the future probability of a behavior - Remove reinforcer that is maintaining the behavior to extinguish it - Extinction burst - Spontaneous recovery: after a behavior has been extinguished, it comes back sometime in the future, will be easier to extinguish again - Escape and avoidance behavior: Negative Reinforcement - Exposure and response prevention therapy: Used for OCD - OCD composed of two parts, Obsessions, mental thoughts, and Compulsions, physical rituals - Schedules of Reinforcement: They DO impact what you are likely to see in the behavior - Fixed Ratio: Post reinforcement pause - Intermittent schedules of reinforcement will result in greater resistance to extinction than a continuous schedule - Differential Reinforcement Schedules: Reinforce to a greater degree some other behavior - DRO – any other behavior, engaging in anything except the targeted - DRA – reinforce a specific alternate behavior - DRI – reinforce a behavior that can not be performed simultaneously with target behavior - Problems with the use of Punishment - Modeling - Habit Strength: Punishment does not affect probability, it suppresses the behavior. You do not learn that the behavior is bad, you learn to avoid punishment - Matching Law – If there are two behaviors you are doing, and you are reinforced 70% of time for B1 and 30% for B2, you will spend 70% on B1 and 30% on B2 - Overmatching – Engaging in behavior for a greater percentage of time that you are reinforced for it - Undermatching – Engaging in behavior for a lesser percentage of time that you are reinforced for it - Personality Traits, from a behavioral perspective, leads to circular reasoning - Problem with Will Power: Stop smoking b/c they have will power, but also say they have will power because they were able to stop smoking - Reject personality traits because it does not explain behavior, just circular reasoning - Learned Taste Aversion: Ability to be trained in a single trial - Relevance: Some things are more easily conditioned than others - Ex: Sickness is easy to condition to food, fear is easy to condition to snakes - Bias: Choosing to conduct a certain behavior over others when reinforcement is equal. Bias is a measure of preference; it will be the most reinforcing behavior - Melioration: Leveling-out process of shifting behavior towards higher reinforcing behavior - Stimulus Discrimination: Able to tell the difference between and behave differently to two different stimuli - Stimulus Generalization: Performing the Conditioned Response to a Neutral Stimulus because it is similar to the Conditioned Stimulus - Experimental Neurosis: Anxiety of subject caused by inability to complete a task during an experiment - Latent Inhibition: A familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus - Overshadowing: When two stimuli are simultaneously presented, the most salient is more easily conditioned and thus preventing the less salient of the two from being associated as a CS - Blocking – a previously conditioned CS interferes with the conditioning of a new neutral stimulus as a CS - Instinctive Drift: A return to natural behavior after conditioned behavior - Ex. Dancing Bear, at some point the bear’s behavior will return to its natural behavior and stop dancing and bite you - Adjunctive Behavior: Behavior that occurs between reinforcement during an Intermittent Schedule of Reinforcement - Ex. Behaviors performed while in doctor’s office waiting room - Activity Anorexia: Idea that if you change your access to food very quickly, the activity of the organism is going to increase very quickly - Evolutionary Theories about activity anorexia: What possible benefits? – We would have to go and find food when we run out. If activity decreased with decrease in food, we would die of starvation. - Observational Learning - Social Learning - True Imitation – Imitate a behavior for a specific reason. No trial and error. - Stimulus Enhancement – Not imitation, when I am exposed to your behavior, stimulus, I conduct in it because it looks good, response. Trial and error. - Indirect Learning - Modeling: Imitation and social learning - Characteristics of a Model that make it more likely to be imitated - Language - Rule Governed Behavior - Language - 4 Characteristics of fully functional language - Reference - Grammar - Productivity Reinforcer: An event which follows a behavior and increases the future probability of that behavior occurring Punisher: An event following a behavior which decreases the future probability of that behavior occurring CHARACTERISTICS OF A CONSEQUENCE 1. Immediacy (Soon) 2. Certainty (Certain) 3. Size (Large) Extinction: A conditioned response is weakened or eliminated by repeatedly presenting the CS in the absence of the US Ex: Light: Food  Salivation NS US UR Light  Salivation CS CR - Now that light has been paired as a CS eliciting salivation as the conditioned response, we can extinguish this behavior by repeatedly presenting Light, the CS, without Food, the US, eventually ceasing the salivation Light  No Salivation NS - Extinction decreases the strength of the CR, eventually leading to no CR Extinction Burst: A temporary increase in the frequency and intensity of a CR when extinction is first implemented Spontaneous Recovery: A reappearance of a conditioned response following a rest period after extinction. - This reappearance does not last long, and the behavior is more easily extinguished with each recovery period Escape and Avoidance Behavior: Negative Reinforcement - Removal of an aversive stimulus Escape Behavior: results in the termination of an aversive stimulus - Ex: Raining: Open Umbrella  Stop getting wet Avoidance Behavior: occurs before the presentation of an aversive stimulus and thus prevents its delivery Ex: Exam Day: Fake Illness  Don’t have to take exam (removes anxiety) Exposure and Response Prevention Therapy (ERP): Method of treating OCD that involves prolonged exposure to the anxiety-arousing event while not engaging in the compulsive behavior patterns which normally reduce the anxiety - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A disorder characterized by persistent thoughts, impulses, or images (called obsessions), that are carried out in a response to an obsession Schedules of Reinforcement - The response requirement that must be met in order to obtain the reinforcement - Variable Ratio = Most Efficient - Fixed Interval = Least Efficient - Post-Reinforcement Pause: Short pause in responses following the attainment of each reinforcer - Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement will result in greater resistance to extinction than a Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement Differential Reinforcement Schedules - Aid in the process of extinguishing an unwanted behavior and reinforcing the occurrence of a replacement behavior - Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO): Reinforcement of any behavior other than the target behavior that is being extinguished - Differential Reinforcement of Alternate Behavior (DRA): Reinforcement of a specific behavior different from the target behavior being extinguished - Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI): Reinforcing a behavior that cannot be performed simultaneously with the target behavior being extinguished Problems with the use of Punishment 1. Punishment of an inappropriate behavior does not directly strengthen the occurrence of appropriate behavior. It may even result in a general suppression of behavior. - Ex: Punish a child for aggressive play, instead of the child engaging in cooperative play, as desired, the child may simply stop playing with others completely 2. The person delivering the punishment may become a discriminative stimulus (S∆) for the behavior, resulting in the unwanted behavior being suppressed only when the person delivering the punishment is present. - Ex: Child may associate parent with being punisher, and continue to misbehave while they are absent. Therefore, the child learns not to get caught rather than the behavior being wrong. 3. Punishment might just teach individual to avoid person who delivers the punishment. - Ex: Child may avoid parent who severely punishes them and just minimize their time with them. 4. Punishment is likely to elicit a strong emotional response. This is especially the case when Positive Punishment is implemented, such as spanking. - Ex: Parent yells at child after misbehaving, this makes the child upset and cry uncontrollably, not only causing an unpleasant situation, but also preventing the parent from teaching the child the correct behavior. 5. Punishment can sometimes elicit an aggressive reaction. - Ex: Child who is spanked by parent may lash out at them, or hit or yell at another, such as a younger sibling. 6. The use of punishment, through the process of modeling, could teach the person that punishment is an appropriate means of controlling others’ behavior. - Ex: Punished children may try to control other via punishment. An abused child may abuse other children. 7. Punishment has a strong, immediate effect and is strongly reinforcing to the one delivering punishment. - Ex: Parent hits their child to make them be quiet, and the child stops immediately. The parent’s behavior is then reinforced by the room being quiet and their - Excessive wheel running for rats on restricted feeding schedule is an adjunctive behavior - “If rats are only allowed to access food for only a single 1.5 hour feeding period each day, and 22.5 hours of access to a wheel between meals, they will begin to spend increasing amount of time running during that interval. Not only that, the more they run, the less they eat, and the less they eat, the more they run. In other words, it is sort of a Negative Feedback cycle.” - Evolutionary Theory: Humans would benefit from this behavior because an increased level in activity during low levels of food intake would promote going out and finding food as opposed to ceasing activity and starving to death. Observational Learning: the behavior of a “model” is witnessed by an observer, who gains information from that behavior and can use the information to modify their own behavior. - This is a social process which humans benefit from greatly due to their social nature, and therefore, acquire new behaviors quickly this way. - Social Learning: a cognitive-behavioral approach that strongly emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables in explaining behavior. - True Imitation: duplicating a novel behavior (or sequence of behaviors) to achieve a specific goal - Stimulus Enhancement: Exposure to a behavior which directs an animal’s attention to a particular place or object. This is NOT true imitation. Indirect Learning: Acquisition of behavior through modeling - Characteristics which make acquisition of behavior more likely if: 1. The consequences of the model’s behavior are reinforcing 2. Observers are explicitly reinforced for being attentive to model’s behavior 3. The behavior being modeled can be easily understood and duplicated 4. The characteristics of the model are similar to those of the observer 4 Characteristics of Language Reference: The ability to use arbitrary symbols to communicate Grammar: A set of rules that control the meaning of a string of symbols Productivity: An infinite number of expressions can be generated to produce novel or creative ideas Situational Freedom: Language can be used in a variety of contexts and is not fixed to a particular situation Classical Conditioning – a process in which one stimulus that does not elicit a response is associated with a second stimulus that does; as a result, the first stimulus also comes to elicit that response - Also known as Pavlovian Conditioning or Respondent Conditioning - Temporal Conditioning: a form of classical conditioning in which the CS is the passage of time - Ex: You set your alarm clock every morning for 6 AM and wake up every morning to the alarm. One night you forget to set your alarm, but you still wake up around 6 AM. - Occasion Setting: a procedure in which a stimulus (known as an occasion setter) signals that a CS is likely to be followed by the US in which it was associated - The presence of the occasion setter then facilitates the occurrence of the CR in response to the CS - Occasion setter can also be associated with a change in the intensity of the US - Ex: Alcohol Absent: {Parents: Mild Abuse  Mild Anxiety Alcohol Present: {Parents: Severe Abuse  Intense Anxiety WHICH LEADS TO………. Alcohol Absent: {Parents  Mild Anxiety Alcohol Present: {Parents  Intense Anxiety - Alcohol, therefore, is the occasion setter for the anxiety in a child when in presence of an alcoholic parent -Revaluation: New information about a stimulus makes it more or less reinforcing - Do not know much about snakes: Snake  No Anxiety - Learn snake bites can be deadly: Snake  Severe Anxiety - The knowledge learned about snake bites lead to a revaluation about the snake stimulus creating a stronger response. - Pseudoconditioning: an elicited response that appears to be a CR, but is really just the result of sensitization and stimulus generalization - Ex: Light Flash: Shock  Leg Flexion Light Flash  Leg Flexion Metronome  Leg Flexion - How do you determine is Pseudoconditioning has occurred? - Use a control group that have the US and NS presented separately from each other and an experimental group which is exposed to the US and NS separately but during the same trial, if the control group elicits a much weaker response, then Pseudoconditioning has occurred