Hemingway's Adjectives & Sentence Complexity in Two Stories, Slides of English

Download Hemingway's Adjectives & Sentence Complexity in Two Stories and more Slides English in PDF only on Docsity! ge HOG AN FGR LARANDE i OCH KOMMUNIKATION HOGSKOLAN | JONKOPING A Stylistic Comparison of Two Short Stories by Ernest Hemingway: “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place” and ” Hills Like White Elephants” Marko L. W. Hietanen Projekt i engelska med litteraturvetenskaplig inriktning (1 5hp) Handledare: Mari-Ann Berg Engelska 61-90 hp Examinator: Héstterminen 2009 Annika Denke HÖGSKOLAN FÖR LÄRANDE OCH KOMMUNIKATION (HLK) Högskolan i Jönköping Projekt i engelska med litteratur- vetenskaplig inriktning (15hp) Inom Lärande Lärarutbildningen Höstterminen 2010 Marko Hietanen A Stylistic Comparison of Two Short Stories by Ernest Hemingway: “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place” and “Hills Like White Elephants” Antal sidor: 28 The purpose with this essay is to investigate how Ernest Hemingway uses his style of writing in his short stories “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place” and “Hills Like White Elephants”. The questions at issue are: What is characteristic of Hemingway's style when looking at the use of adjectives and sentence complexity? How is the Iceberg Technique used? What stylistic differences and similarities are there between the stories? In my investigation I used a stylistic approach, in which adjectives are counted and sentence length is meas- ured (creating mainly a quantitative analysis). The frequency of adjectives is calculated and compared against the norm in imaginative prose. Sentence length is compared against the norm for modern English. Previous research has provided a foundation for further analysis of the Iceberg Technique. The analysis shows that the frequency of adjectives is very low compared with the norm and that many ad- jectives are used repeatedly. The sentences are very short, not even reaching half the length of the norm pre- sented. Hemingway’s Iceberg Technique shows in the scarce use of dialogue tags and a plot that does not reveal much about the characters or the setting. The real plot is often hidden, leaving it to the reader to in- terpret and “feel” what the story is really about. In conclusion: it may be said that both short stories are told in a minimalistic style, using only what is neces- sary to tell the story. They have a simple plot and simple characters, just like the Hemingway style we know. Sökord: Adjectives, Hemingway, Iceberg Technique, Omission, Sentence complexity, Sentence length Postadress Högskolan för lärande och kommunikation (HLK) Box 1026 551 11 JÖNKÖPING Gatuadress Gjuterigatan 5 Telefon 036–101000 Fax 036162585 5.3 Differences and Similarities .....................................................................................................................22 5.3.1 The Iceberg Technique: Omission ....................................................................................................22 5.3.2 Sentence Complexity ...........................................................................................................................22 5.3.3 Adjectives ..............................................................................................................................................23 6 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................................24 Works Cited ..................................................................................................................................................................26 6 In this essay I will discuss how Hemingway's writing style is reflected in two of his most fa- mous short stories: ―A Clean, Well-Lighted Place‖ (1933) and ―Hills Like White Elephants‖ (1927). There are two reasons why this essay focuses on these two particular short stories. First of all, Hemingway's short stories are very highly regarded, even more so than his best known novels according to Tyler (21). Kartiganer (59) states that it is in Hemingway's short stories written after 1926 that we actually find his finest work. Secondly, both these stories are very well known and written at about the same time (1927 and 1933), before Hemingway became a really well-known writer, which gives the analysis of this essay a chance to investi- gate how some of the most characteristic elements of Hemingway's writing style at this time are displayed. There is much to be said about Hemingway's writing style and about which elements in his life contributed to its formation; therefore it is essential to first be introduced to Hemingway himself, his life and works, to fully be able to understand his way of writing. Why I chose this topic for my essay, is because Ernest Hemingway, his works and in particu- lar his writing style, have always interested and enchanted me. It is therefore with great inter- est that I will in this essay explore the world of Hemingway and focus on some of the ques- tions that have arisen in the process of reading his works. The American writer Ernest Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on July 21, 1899 and he can be identified as the most widely read serious fiction writer in America during the twen- tieth century (Shuman 659). Young (5) writes about Hemingway that ―no other novelist has had an equivalent influence on the prose of modern fiction‖. Shuman (659) writes that it is said, that the most important contribution to American literature is Hemingway's simple writ- ing style, where he seems to leave out everything from the text except the most essential parts, by finding exactly the right words to use. Kartiganer (54) writes that ―Hemingway perfected an art of exclusion‖ and says that Hemingway had a gift called the ―built-in, shock-proof, shit detector‖, which he used to detect and erase all the words that did not work, leaving only the words that were of highest importance to his story. An example of this is that Hemingway is said to have ―[rewritten] the ending of A Farewell to Arms seventy times‖ (Donaldson 7). 7 Shuman (660) says that Hemingway never went to college, instead he took a job with a news- paper called Kansas City Star, working as a journalist. Hemingway said that during his time as a reporter on the 'Star' he learned to write simple declarative sentences, use short para- graphs and first sentences, use vigorous English and to be cautious about adjective use –these were rules of writing he never forgot (Tyler 15-16). At the end of Hemingway's life, he was very sick and diagnosed as manic-depressive, suffer- ing from nightmares, paranoia, insomnia — a theme that also occurred in ―A Clean, Well- Lighted Place‖ (Tyler 13). Beegel (273) writes that Hemingway committed suicide by shoot- ing himself in the head with a shotgun in Kethum on July 2, 1961. Hemingway's extensive body of work included newspaper and magazine articles, poetry, short stories, novels, a book-length of non-fiction, a memoir, a parody, a play, a documentary film script, letters (up to 14,000 is a figure mentioned) and so forth (Tyler 20-21). Shuman (663) writes that Hemingway's first full-length book of short stories titled In Our Time was published in 1925, and in 1926 his first important novel The Sun Also Rises. Tyler (73-76) writes that Hemingways short story collection Men Without Women came out in 1927, and that it contained one of his best and most famous short stories, like ―Hills Like White Elephants‖. Shuman (663) says that Hemingway's first major commercial success was A Farewell to Arms, published in 1929. Other important works by Hemingway are: Death in the afternoon (novel), Green Hills of Africa (autobiographical journal), To Have and Have Not and For Whom the Bell Tolls (novels) and The Old Man and the Sea (a novella). Here should also be mentioned 'A Clean, Well-Lighted Place', first published in Scribner's Magazine in 1933, which is also considered to be one of Hemingway's best and most famous short stories. Tyler also lists about thirteen posthumous works by Hemingway, for example the novels: A Moveable Feast, Islands in the Stream and The Garden of Eden (33-160). Hemingway won the Pulitzer Prize in 1952 for fiction and the Nobel Prize in 1954 in literature for his novella The Old Man and the Sea (Reynolds 16). Tyler (25) says that the main theme in Hemingway's writing is about how to live with dignity in a world full of violence and issues dealing with defeat and suffering. The theme ―A Clean Well-Lighted Place‖ (from now on abbreviated as 'Place') is solidarity, good conduct, noth- 10 No parts of the short stories were excluded with regard to frequency of adjectives; every sin- gle word was counted. This was because there might have been differences in frequency be- tween one part of the story and another, and if this had not been taken into account, it might have brought down the quality of the analysis (Short 333). A sentence, in the present study, is ―a complete structure found in written texts, bounded by sentence punctuation such as '.', '!', '?'.‖ (Biber, Conrad and Leech 460). The sentence length is presented against the norm for modern English. Short (337) mentions that Ellegård (in 1978) produced a norm for modern English writing, where the average sentence length is said to have been 17.8 words per sentence. Because there was a chance that Hemingway might have used both long and short sentences, counting the average sentence length might have been misleading. Therefore the sentence length is also presented by counting the median. In this essay, median is the middle value from a list of observations ranging from the lowest values to the highest values. To provide more accurate statistics as regards Hemingway‘s sentence length, all the sentences in both stories were counted. The length of the sentences is also displayed in diagrams, show- ing the length of every sentence counted. Hemingway was a part of the Modernist movement, which was known for its radical experi- mentation and aesthetic innovation. The Modernists included James Joyce's, William Faulk- ner's and Virginia Woolf's stream-of-consciousness; Ezra Pound's and Hilda Doolittle's non- rhyming verse forms; and the fragmentation in T.S. Eliot's poem 'The Waste Land‖ (Tyler 23). Hemingway influenced many writers, and he is said to be the inventor of writing in vernacular American English. Minimalism, for which he is very well known, is said to have influenced a literary movement in the seventies. Minimalism is ‖characterized by ordinary subject matter, an effaced authorial presence, a passive and affectless protagonist, very little plot in the traditional sense, the use of the historical present tense, and a spare, emotionally re- strained writing style‖ (Tyler 30). Henry & Walker Bergström (362) say that a writer's medium is language, and during Modern- ism this came to be as important as the subject. For writers like Hemingway, it was more im- portant how he wrote, than what he wrote. 11 Leech & Short write that the question stylistics wants to answer is the why and the how, and says that it is the reader‘s creative imagination that interprets the content in a text (13, 39). One definition of style/stylistics is that ―Style is a way in which language is used‖ whereas stylistics is the study of style. Literary stylistics, in turn, has to do with ―explaining the rela- tion between style and literary or aesthetic function‖ (Leech & Short 38-39). Another way of explaining this is by saying that stylistic analysis is a method of linking linguistic form, via reader in- ference, to interpretation in a detailed way and thereby providing as much evidence as possible for and against particular interpretations of texts. (Short, 27) Leech & Short (42-44) continue by saying that when talking about style as a function of fre- quency, you might think that style can be measured. The statement that Hemingway uses 'short sentences' amounts to a claim that the average length of a Hemingway sentence is shorter (to a significant extent) than the average length of an English sentence: something that can in principle be verified or falsified (43). This statement raises the question how we actually can decide what is the average sentence- length in English. It is impossible to find a representative norm for the average sentence length and Leech and Short proceed to list numerous reasons in support of this. For example you would need the ―complete corpus of the language at a given period‖ (44), meaning that one would have to ransack every single library in the whole word. Even if it is very difficult to measure style and to present it in the form of reliable quantitative data; measuring style is still an ―important tool in stylistic description‖ (Leech & Short 43-71). Carter & Nash (3-16) write that style can be recognised because it stands out in one way or another from a standard, which is defined as the most frequent style occurring in a statistical sense. This should simply mean that style can be seen as deviation, which is not right, since norms are very difficult to standardise. Carter & Nash continue by saying that we should see ―style as relational and examine how a piece of language works in context in relation to the operations of language in other context‖ (16). Leech & Short (75-77) mention two questions, under their check-list of linguistic and stylistic categories, that also are vital for this essay (see Aim), because the analysis focuses on adjective usage and sentence length. The first question under the lexical categories is ―Are the 12 adjectives frequent?‖ and then under the grammatical categories, the question ―What is the average sentence length (in number of words)?‖ (Leech & Short, 75-77). Hemingway's theory of omission, already seen in his early line of work, is probably his most important contribution to literature. Hemingway always tried to write according to his iceberg principle — by eliminating as much as possible so that only the tip of the iceberg is visible above water. This way most of the story must be indirectly inferred by the reader, like the rest of the iceberg that is hidden below the murky surface. Hemingway thought his style of writing was often suggestive and not that direct, leading to the reader using his or her imagination in order not to lose the subtle parts of Hemingway's intentions (Tyler 22). Henry & Walker Bergström (362-363) explain the Iceberg Technique by saying that He- mingway used a telegraphic style when writing, letting the reader fill in what was not visual in plain text, something he described in terms of an iceberg. There is a well known description about Hemingway's theory of omission, to be read in Death in the Afternoon, a novel written by Hemingway himself: If a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. (192) Knight (131) tells us that it is the part that Hemingway did not write down that is the most important part: The part written and visible for the reader was the least important part. Strychacz (59) writes that Hemingway was ―the master of the simple declarative sentence‖. He also says that Hemingway did this by always trying to reproduce the action in a truthful manner, by choosing the smallest amount of exact details so that the reader could ―feel‖ the whole story: This is the ―principle of the iceberg.‖ The important information in Hemingway's text lies in the implied, but unstated parts. He wanted the reader to feel something beyond their understanding (Leech & Short 183). Ezra Pound (200) wrote that ‖It is better to present one Image in a lifetime than to produce voluminous works‖ and stated that a writer should not use adjectives or words that are super- fluous if they do not reveal something important or contribute to the presentation. 15 place, but that is about it; we do not know anything about the waiters or the old man‘s appear- ance (what they look like, what they are wearing, etc.). Neither do we know what we should think about the characters or about what happens in the story. When a story is written in the third person with an omniscient author, quite a lot should be revealed to the reader, but here Hemingway seems to think that it is up to the reader to interpret what the characters are like and what the story really is about. Nothingness, and the word nothing, seems to be a key word in ‗Place‘. Hemingway is hiding the reason for the old man's suicide attempt by not giving the answer to the reader directly, but instead displaying it through the thoughts of the old waiter. When close-reading the story, you first see that the 'younger waiter' says that the old man had no reason to try to kill himself, which is easy to see because it is said clearly (to the reader). But you can also see that in one passage the 'older waiter' puts a series of nadas into a prayer (meaning the content in these prayers mean nothing to him any more), and you understand that he is talking about the 'old man', that this man's life is empty (mainly because he has lost his wife), that the 'old man' has nothing and that the only way out of this nothingness is death. All this is displayed through the 'old waiter'. Number of words: 1434. Number of sentences: 165. Average sentence length: 8.69 words. Average sentence length norm for modern English (according to Ellegård): 17.8 words. Median: 7. Most common sentence length: 6 words = 22 sentences (13.33% of all the sentences). Shortest sentence: 1 word used in 6 sentences (3.64% of all the sentences). Longest sentences: 50 words = 1 sentence, 41 words = 1 sentence, 40 words = 1 sentence. 16 Diagram 1 In Diagram 1 the x-axis shows sentences with one to fifty words, and the y-axis shows how many times each sentence length occurs. In the Diagram 1, you clearly see how the lengths of the sentences are spread out. It is notable that only 13 (7.89%) sentences of the total 165 are above the average norm (17.8), and that 128 (77.58%) sentences are between one and ten words long, since according to Ellegård the average is almost 18 words per sentence which is almost twice this amount. Since there are many short dialogues in ‗Place‘, this affects the av- erage sentence length; this can be seen by looking at the sentence length in the dialogue pre- sented (see 5.1.1). As mentioned before, Hemingway is known for his use of short sentences, but by reading a lot of Hemingway's work, I have found out that he also likes to use long compound sentences, i.e. stacking clause and clause and clause after one another. The following example, with the in- dented extracts, is a part of a dialogue sequence from 'Place' and it shows how Hemingway uses 50 words in one sentence: They sat together at a table that was close against the wall near the door of the café and looked at the terrace where the tables were all 17 empty except where the old man sat in the shadow of the leaves of the tree that moved slightly in the wind. (29) As Knight (149) has said, Hemingway's coordinated sentences often use the conjunction and, but this is not the case in 'Place'. As you can see in the sentence above, and is used only once, and this can be said about the entire story; that the use of and does not occur often. Number of words: 1434. Number of adjectives: 74 (including repeated adjectives). Percentage of words used that are adjectives: 5.16%. Percentage of words that are the norm of adjectives used in imaginative prose: 7.8%. As listed above, 5.16% of the words used are adjectives; compared with the norm which is 7,8%, according to Hofland & Jonasson (6). If ‗Place‘ would have followed the norm, it would have contained 112 adjectives. Repetition of adjectives occurs a lot in ‗Place‘, especially of the adjective 'old'. The three most common adjectives in ‗Place‘ are: Old (18 times), drunk (6 times) and clean (4 times), which gives a total number of 28 words or 37.84% of the adjectives used. Hemingway has not given any names to his characters but instead refers to them as the ―old man‖ (14 times), ―older waiter‖ (3 times) and ―younger waiter‖ (2 times). This should be taken into consideration when looking at Hemingway‘s use of adjectives, because if he would have given his characters names and referred to them by doing so, Hemingway could have used up to 19, (or 25.68%), fewer adjectives. The 74 adjectives in total would only have been reduced to 55, meaning that only 3.84% of the all the words would have been adjectives, which is less than half of the general norm, 7.8%. Pound (200) said that adjectives should only be used when they are important. The adjective old must be most important, then, since it occurs 18 times! And it is important to this story, since the main theme is age, getting old and not having anything any more. Through the story the adjectives indeed seem to be of importance. They are often used to describe a state some- one is in; drunk, lonely, sleepy, or describe the setting; light, clean, quiet, or the people; old, younger, deaf. This might be a general characteristic of adjectives, but Hemingway does not go into details. He says that somebody is old, but not how old, something is quiet, but not in a 20 In Diagram 2 the x-axis shows sentences with one to 36 words, and the y-axis shows how many times each sentence length occurs. Notice that only 10 (5.62%) sentences of the 178 in total are above the average norm, 17.8, and that 132 (74.16%) sentences are between one and ten words long. The example below with the indented extracts, shows that the longest sentence in ‗Hills‘, con- tains 36 words: Close against the side of the station there was the warm shadow of the building and a curtain, made of strings of bamboo beads, hung across the open door into the bar, to keep out flies. (341) Diagram 2 There are not that many more long sentences, as you can see in diagram 1B. Many of the sen- tences containing the dialogue, are often quite short (see 5.2.1). But even the sentences not containing the dialogue, are often quite short, like the one in this example below, with the in- dented extracts, that is from ‗Hills': 21 He drank an Anis at the bar and looked at the people. They were all waiting reasonably for the train. He went out through the bead curtain. She was sitting at the table and smiled at him. (345) Hemingway's coordinated sentences are often supposed to use the conjunction and (Knight, 149). In ‗Hills‘ you can see this in a couple of places, especially the longer sentences, for ex- ample ―...was the warm shadow of the building and a curtain, made of bamboo beads, hang across...‖ but coordinated sentences do not occur often. Number of words: 1455. Number of adjectives: 48 (including repeated adjectives). Percentage of words used that are adjectives: 3.3%. Percentage of words that are the norm of adjectives used in imaginative prose: 7.8%. Compared with the norm, 7.8% according to Hofland & Jonasson (6), only 3.3% of all the words used in ‗Hills‘ are adjectives. Had Hemingway followed the norm, ‗Hills‘ would have contained 113 adjectives. Many adjectives in the story are repeated, and when looking at the three adjectives used most often, you notice that they appear 16 times, or make up 33.33% of the adjectives used. So the words white (6 times), fine (5 times), simple (5 times), stand for one third of all the adjectives in the story. Hemingway might not have used many adjectives, but when he did, they were often of extra importance, as they should be according to Pound‘s own theories (200). Some adjectives that describe the setting, e.g. ―warm shadow‖, ―very hot‖, ―damp felt pads‖, etc. seem not to be of any importance to the story, since, if left out, it would not have affected the understanding of the story. Others, by contrast, such as ―I feel fine‖, ―perfectly simple‖, ―be happy‖ are very important for the reader to be able to get an understanding of the characters and how they feel about the topic they are discussing. For example when the man is saying ―It's really an aw- fully simple operation, Jig,‖ (342) he shows clearly how he feels about abortion, that it is not a big deal. 22 ‗Place‘ and ‗Hills‘ are similar in the sense that the dialogue tags in them are missing more of- ten than they are present. The difference is that in ‗Place‘ it is sometimes impossible to decide with certainty which of the waiters (characters) is saying what, something that is confirmed by Ryan (78-79) among others. In ‗Hills‘, this issue is not a problem, since there are only two characters speaking and they both have distinctive voices. Even if the stories are written from different points of view, ‗Place‘ in the third-person and ‗Hills‘ in third-person objective dramatic, they both reveal roughly the same amount of in- formation about the characters. Since they are both third-person instead of first-person stories, the reader is not inside the head of any of the characters and does not know their motives. So the reader is an objective bystander that has to piece together the story without the benefit of knowing the characters or hearing their thoughts. What can be said about differences and/or similarities concerning the analyses of ‗nothing- ness‘ in ‗Place‘ and ‗abortion‘ in ‗Hills‘, is that there is more under the surface than these sto- ries reveal and that it is important to keep your eyes on the parts/words that stick out (fore- grounding and deviation). In Diagram 3 (next page) the x-axis shows sentences with one to fifty words, and the y-axis shows how many times each sentence length occurs. First of all, it is interesting to notice that both short stories are almost of the same length; with ‗Place‘ consisting of 1,434 words and ‗Hills‘ of 1,455 words; in numbers they differ by only 21 words (roughly 1.5%). When look- ing at Diagram 3, it is also striking how similar ‗Place‘ and ‗Hills‘ are with regard to sentence length. ‗Place‘ contains 8.69 words per sentence and ‗Hills‘ 8.17 words per sentence. Both stories are far behind the norm, however, which is 17.8 words per sentence. This means that, Hemingway's sentences are 52,64% shorter than a normal length sentence in modern English (recorded in 1978). The rest of the ‗sentence facts‘ are also fairly similar; with the median of ‗Place‘ being 7, versus that of ‗Hills‘ being 6. The most common sentence length in ‗Place‘ is 6 words, versus 5 words in ‗Hills‘. 25 since the gender tells the characters apart and then you do not need the adjectives to the same extent. When it comes to the old man, I think ‗old‘ was added since he was outside the norm, similar to how in our Western-centric literature people are always white unless we say differ- ently. Leaving out the dialogue tag, which Hemingway often does, is of course a sign of omission. In 'Place' the dialogue tag is sometimes so absent, especially in the first part of the story, that it is actually difficult to be sure of who is saying what. My analysis of the absence of the word abortion in ‗Hills‘ and the meaning of nothingness (nada) in ‗Place‘, was carried out by foregrounding something that stuck out in the stories, one way or another. The ‗abortion‘, or rather the lack of it, in ‗Hills‘ has been discussed many times before, but I wanted to try to find out, why the word was omitted. I found two theories; either that it has to do with the fact that the core of the story is actually about relationships or that it relates to how abortion was seen in Spain in 1927. ‗Nothingness‘ in ‗Place‘ was easier to interpret, because the word nada stuck out so clearly. Also Hemingway gave many clues to make the reader understand that nothing in the story was the reason for not wanting to con- tinue living; when you grow old you might one day have lost everything. Leech & Short (183) and Strychacz (59), among many, talk about ―feeling‖ what is hidden under the iceberg, but it is very difficult to substantiate a ―feeling‖ in a scholarly manner. In real life, when you are interacting with another person, you do not know that person‘s inti- mate thoughts, (what the person is really thinking about) but you, consciously or uncon- sciously, interpret and guess what the other person is thinking. A question that arose when analysing Hemingway was: Should/can one really explain what the true core is in Hemingway‘s short stories, or are you actually just seeing what you want to see? In an interview Hemingway said: ―Read anything I write for the pleasure of reading it. Whatever else you find will be the measure of what you brought to the reading,‖ (Plimpton, 18). Words used: 7,193 Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995. Beck, Andrew., Bennet, Peter and Wall, Peter. Communication Studies: The Essential Resource. London: Routledge, 2004. Beegel, F. Susan. ―Conclusion: The Critical Reputation of Ernest Hemingway.‖ The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. Ed. Scott Donaldson: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Bennet, Warren. ―Character, Irony, and Resolution in ―A Clean, Well-Lighted Place‖‖ American Literature. 42.1 (1970): 70-79. 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