Grammar and verb types, Lecture notes of Grammar and Composition

Download Grammar and verb types and more Lecture notes Grammar and Composition in PDF only on Docsity! English Grammar A Short Guide 13 VW Le of Abdallah Exraj 2 I. Sentence Elements II. Verb Types III. Sentence Combination Identity: Never changes. I. Sen tence Elemen ts: Function: Changes depending on the sentence. Ex: -The boy arrived - I met the boy Identity:Noun Phrase Identity:Noun Phrase Function:Subject Function:Direct Object 1.Coordinators, Subordinators, Ar ticles and Quan tifiers/ Specifiers. The conjunctions’ function depends on the type of the conjunction, whether it is a coordinator or a subordinator. Ex: I didn’t go to school for I was ill. I was ill, and I didn’t go to school. I had lunch after I had finished my work. Element Identity Function For Conjunction Coordinator And Conjunction Coordinator After Conjunction Subordinator The articles and Quantifiers’ function is “determiner” because they determine or refer to a noun. Ex: His father works in a factory. Many students were absent. The factory is very big. Some questions were easy. She was sitting in an office. English teachers are few. Element Identity Function A Article Determiner The Article Determiner An Article Determiner Many Quantifier / Specifier Determiner Some Quantifier / Specifier Determiner 5 -Phrases Aphrase is a group of words without a verb. Ex:We put a rug over him. Phrase 1.Nouns and noun phrases. Nouns are traditionally defined as “persons, places, things, and ideas.”Noun phrases are defined as phrases that consist of a noun or pronoun and any number of constituents including adjectives, determiners, prepositional phrases, verb phrases, and adjective clauses. Ex: I liked the book. Noun phrase I liked the book. Noun Head of the noun phrase They had dinner in the garden. I can’t find my history book. I met the students outside. I will meet you tomorrow. She gave the childa present. They met in the park. They elected him president. They bought a gift to Mary. He is a doctor. Astranger is in the garden. I told Mr. Alami, the dean, about the meeting. Element Identity Function Garden Noun Head of the noun phrase The students Noun Phrase Direct Object The child Indirect Object The park Complement of preposition President Object complement To Mary Complement of preposition Adoctor Subject complement Astranger Subject The garden Complement of preposition The dean Appositive History Modifier of noun Tomorrow Adjunct Note: How to distinguish between a noun and a noun phrase? First, you should make sure whether the element and the number of constituents accompanying it are underlined or not. If they are, we’ll say that the identity is “Noun Phrase” and the function will depend on where the element is placed in the sentence. If only the element is underlined, then the identity will remain as “Noun” and it will function 6 as “Head of the noun phrase”. If you notice that only the element is underlined and has another function apart from “Head of the noun phrase”, then the identity is “Noun Phrase”. “Appositive” is a word put in a sentence in order to add some information or express emphasis. In the sentence: “I told Mr.Alami, the dean, about the meeting.”The dean is not really necessary because even if we omit it, the sentence will not change in meaning and it will stay grammatically correct as in: “I told Mr. Alami about the meeting.” 2.Wh-Phrases and relative pronouns. Wh-phrases are typically used to ask questions, and each wh-phrase asks about something different. Ex: what, who, whom, how,which, where, and when. What: asks about things. When: asks about time. Who/Whom: asks about person. Where: asks about place. Which: asks about things or preference. How: asks about manner. Ex: Whatmade you think so? When did you meet them? Who wrote the lesson on the blackboard? Where did you meet? How did you find the food? How did you fix it? Whichone do you like most? Element Identity Function What Wh-Phrase Subject Who Subject How Object complement Which Direct Object When Adjunct/ Adverb of time Where Adjunct/ Adverb of place How Adjunct/ Adverb of manner . If you are confused about how to find the function of a wh-phrase, there is a very simple way to do it. Try to answer the question and find the function of the key-word. Ex: Who wrote the lesson on the blackboard? Answer: The teacherwrote the lesson on the blackboard. Key-word How did you find the food? Answer: I found the food delicious. Key-word When did you meet them? Answer: We met them yesterday. Key-word 7 Relative pronouns are used to combine two sentences in order to avoid repetit ion. They are many.Who, That, Whom,Which, When, Where,Whose, and What. Instead of: The man is outside. The man is an officer. Consider: The man who is outside is an officer. The most important thing here is not how to combine the sentences, but how to find the function of the relative pronoun. Transform the sentence given into a simple sentence. Ex: The man who is outside is an officer. The man is an officer. Subject The woman whom I showed you is the president. I showed you the woman. D.O The film which I talked to you about is interesting. I talked to you about the film. Comp of prep The film about which I talked to you is interesting. I talked to you about the film. Comp of prep The man whose car was stolen is here. They stole the man’s car. Genitive Except for the adverbs of time and place, they shouldn’t be transformed into a simple sentence because they are usually preceded by a preposition, and so the function would be “complement of preposition” not “adjunct.” Ex: The time when they met was convenient. Theymet at a convenient time. This is not an adjunct because it is preceded by the preposition “at”.  In grammar, the genit ive is a noun which is used mainly to show possession. In English grammar, a noun or name with ‘s added to it, it’s sometimes called the genit ive form. 3. Adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. Adjectives are known for describing a subject or a noun, but their functions differ. Ex: She found the most recent information on the subject. They have a very large garden. The room is quite large. 1 There are two kinds of clauses: Dependent clause and Independent clause. -The dependent clause is incomplete and meaningless, because it always depends on an independent clause to complete the meaning. -The independent clause does not depend on any sentence because it has a complete sense; thus, it can stand alone. Ex: John has visitedNew York. John visited NewYorkwhen he got married. Main Clause Subordinate Clause Dependent Clause Independent Clause Identity Function John has visited New York Finite Verb Clause Independent Clause John visited New York Finite Verb Clause Main Clause He got marr ied Finite Verb Clause Subordinate Clause  This is a general rule. The first part of the clause is called “Main Clause” and the second part is called “Subordinate Clause” because it starts with the subordinator “When” that relates both the clauses. Even though “When” is not underlined, the clause will remain “ Subordinate Clause” because it is preceded by the subordinator “When.”Now let’s see some different exceptions where a clause can be included. 1. That-Clauses Ex: That she is still alive is a miracle. I knew that he was wrong. The rumor is that things will improve. The rumor that John is a spy is a lie. I am sure that things will improve. Your belief, that things will improve, is unfounded. Clause Identity Function That she is still alive Finite Verb Clause/ Nominal Clause Subject That he was wrong Direct Object That things will improve Subject Complement That John is a spy Modifier in noun phrase That things will improve Complement of Adjective That things will improve Appositive 2. Wh-Caluses Ex: How the bookwill sell is the question. I can imagine what made him do it. The answer is whateveryou like. The question, why he did it at all, was not answered. No one was consulted on who should go. He gave whoever was present a gift. You can call it whatever you want. You should vote for whicheveryou want. 1 Clause Identity Function How the book will sell Finite Verb Clause/ Nominal Clause Subject What made him do it Direct Object Whatever you like Subject Complement Why he did it at all Appositive Who should go Complement of Preposition Whoever was present Indirect Object Whatever you want Object Complement Whichever you want Complement of Preposition 3.Relative Clause Ex: The man who is sitting there is our teacher. John,who is over there, is a doctor. Clause Identity Function Who is sitt ing there F.V.C/ Adjective Clause Modifier in Noun Phrase Who is over there Appositive 4. Adverb Clause Ex: Because he was ill, he didn ’t go to work. Although he hadn’t eaten for days, he looked strong and healthy. Clause Identity Function Because he was ill F.V.C/ Adverb Clause Adjunct/ Adv of reason Although he hadn’t eaten for days Adjunct/ Adv of concession 5.To-Infinitive Clause Ex: For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable. He likes everyone to be unhappy . The best thing to do it is to tell everyone . I consider him to be a man of exceptional intelligence. He wants to study abroad. His ambition, to be an actor, never materialized. I am glad to help you. Peter was playing to win. The man to do the job is John. Clause Identity Function For a br idge to collapse like that Non-F.V.C/ To-Infinit ive Subject To be unhappy Object Complement To tell everyone Subject Complement To be a man of exceptional intelligence Object Complement To study abroad Direct Object To be an actor Appositive To help you Complement of Adjective To win Adjunct/ Adverb of purpose To do the job Modifier in Noun Phrase 1 6. Bare Infinitive Clause Ex: Call for helpwas all I could do. All I did was hit him on the chin. They had Bob examine their child. Clause Identity Function Call for help Non-F.V.C/ Bare Infinit ive Clause Subject Hit him on the chin Subject Complement Examine their child Object Complement 7.Ing-Clause Ex: Smoking cigarettes can cause cancer. He enjoys fis hing in troubledwaters . His hobby is playing practical jokes . I don’t fancy him wearing a uniform. The man sitting on the sofa is a spy. His hobby, collecting stamps , is absurd. They were busy building sand castles. On hearing the news , they rushed home. While attending university, she met him. Strictly speaking, every clause must have a verb and a subject. Clause Identity Function Smoking cigarettes Non-F.V.C/ Ing-Infinit ive Subject Fishing in troubled waters Direct Object Playing practical jokes Subject Complement Wearing a uniform Object Complement Sitt ing on the sofa Modifier of Noun Phrase Collect ing stamps Appositive Building sand castles Complement of Adjective Hear ing the news Complement of Prepostion While attending university Adjunct Str ictly speaking Disjunct 8.Ed-Infinitive Clause Ex: They had the watch repaired. The people involved in the project are experts. Covered withconfusion, they left the room. Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir . Clause Identity Function Repaired Non-F.V.C/ Ed-Infinit ive Clause Object complement Involved in the project Modifier in noun phrase Covered with confusion Adjunct Once published Adjunct/ Adv of time