Grammar Topics about grammar theme, Cheat Sheet of English

Download Grammar Topics about grammar theme and more Cheat Sheet English in PDF only on Docsity! YEAR 12 GRAMMAR TOPICS SFA/2021-2022 1 Table of contents 1. Present simple & continuous 1-2 2. Verbs not used in the continuous 3-4 3. Past simple & continuous 5-6 4. Past perfect simple 7 5. Present perfect simple & continuous 8-9 6. For & since 10 7. During & while 10 8. Past simple vs present perfect simple 10 9. Adverbs of frequency 11 10. Adverbs 12 11. Adjective order 12 12. Questions in English 13-14 13. Pronouns and possessive adjectives 15-17 14. Possessive ‘s 17-18 15. Countable and uncountable nouns 19-20 16. Someone/anyone/no one/everyone (+ else) 21-22 17. All & every 22 18. Prepositions of time 23 19. Prepositions (position): in, at, on 24 20. Prepositions (position) 25 21. Prepositions of movement 26 22. Relatives: type 1 and 2 27 23. Comparative and superlative 28-29 24. The future (1) 30-31 25. The future (2) 32 Sources 32 3 1. VERBS NOT USED IN THE CONTINUOUS 1. Verbs of thinking I think you’re right. (Not: I’m thinking...) Do you know Billy Palmer? (Not : Are you knowing...) 2. Verbs of feeling I like this music. Do you want to go now? 3. Verbs of perception This room feels cold. This cheese smells terrible. 4. Other verbs How long has Sally had her motorbike? I weigh 70 kilos. He has five green alligators. think (=believe) believe understand know see (=understand) recognize suppose remember imagine forget mean realize like dislike hate love prefer want wish see hear smell taste feel have (=possess) own belong to owe need include cost contain weigh sound (= sembler) be seem deserve 4 But note that some of the above verbs have more than one meaning: we can use these verbs in the continuous when they describe actions. Compare : SIMPLE USES CONTINUOUS USES I think you’re right. (think = believe) Ssh ! I’m thinking. (think = use the mind) He has five cats. He’s having dinner. (have = possess) (have = eat) Do you see what I mean? Are you seeing the doctor (see = understand) tomorrow? (see = visit) Compare also these simple and continuous uses of BE : He’s stupid. (generally) He’s being stupid. (He is behaving in a stupid way at the moment) Compare HEAR, SEE and LISTEN, LOOK, WATCH: When we hear or see, it is not always a deliberate action and we do not normally use the continuous: I hear the telephone ring. I (can) see the mountains from my window. When we listen, look, watch, it is a deliberate action and we can use the continuous: Shush! I’m listening to the radio. They are watching TV now. Verbs of physical feeling, for e.g., FEEL, ACHE, HURT, can be used in either the continuous or simple form: I am feeling / I feel ill. 5 2. PAST SIMPLE & PAST CONTINUOUS • FORMS Past simple -> Wolf went and knocked on Grandma’s door. 1. Very often the past simple ends in -ed BUT many verbs are irregular (see list of irregular verbs, 2nd column). 2. In questions and negatives we use DID/DIDN’T + infinitive: Did you go out last night? Yes, I went to the cinema but I didn’t enjoy it much. è BE Was the weather good?/ They weren’t able to come because they were too busy. Past continuous -> No one was waiting at the bus stop. We were playing baseball when you called. 1. WAS/WEREN’T + verb -ing 2. Questions and negatives: What were you doing here? Were you listening to that awful music again? She wasn’t playing with us. • USES We use the past simple: 1. For completed (= finished) events and actions in the past (often with ago): I went to Madrid two years ago. We had an exam on Thursday (= last Thursday). 2. For repeated events and permanent or long-term situations in the past (past habits): She watched TV every night. (= She used to watch TV every night.) He never went to the cinema as a child. (= He never used to go to the cinema as a child.) 3. For telling stories: it shows the events followed each other in order I heard a noise and turned round to look. I didn’t see the hole in front of me and so I fell in it and hurt my knee quite badly. 4. With questions asking WHEN? When was the last time you played rugby? When did you move here? 8 5. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE & CONTINUOUS PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE • FORMS We form the present perfect simple with has/have + past participle (third column on the list of irregular verbs). For regular verbs, the past participle is identical to the past simple form. • USES Ø We use the present perfect to say that a finished action or event is connected with the present in some way. If we say that something has happened, we are thinking about the past and the present at the same time: I can’t go on holiday because I have broken my leg. è we are thinking about a past event with its present result: I’ve lost my new camera. As a result of this of this logic, we cannot refer to a precise moment for a past action which has an impact on the present. The moment is vague because we are focused on the result. The only situation we can refer to a specific period of time when we use the present perfect is when we are still in that period of time: today, this morning/afternoon/week/… Have you seen Tom this morning? Have you made your bed today? Ø We also use the present perfect when we are thinking of a period of ‘time up to now’, even if we don’t mention it, with the idea that it could continue or happen again: I’ve been to Africa and India. You’ve done a lot for me. Ø It’s very often used with the words: just, (not) yet, already, (n)ever, recently, lately. The taxi has just arrived. They haven’t finished dinner yet. I’ve already done the washing up. I’ve never seen a ghost! Have you ever eaten Chinese food? 9 Ø We can use the present perfect to say that something has happened several times up to the present (how much? how many? It’s the first/second time…): I’ve written six letters this morning/since lunchtime. Adverbs of frequency like often, sometimes, occasionally are common with the present perfect: How often have you been in love in your life? Ø We use the present perfect to talk about actions that have continued up to the present. Both the present perfect simple or continuous are possible: I’ve known her for years. I’ve been thinking about you all day. Ø We often use the present perfect (simple or continuous) with How long…? How long have you been in high school? – For two years. Ø GONE OR BEEN? Compare: Tim has gone to the dentist (= he’s still there). Tim has been to the dentist (= he’s back now). PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS • FORMS have/ has been + verb –ing è Verbs which express an action (to drink, to sleep, to eat, to wait,...) or a gradual change (to change, to grow, ...) can be used in the present perfect continuous with FOR or SINCE. è See the list of verbs that cannot be used in the continuous! • USES Ø Like the present perfect simple, the present perfect continuous often uses how long …? How long have you been learning Spanish? Ø We answer the question How long…? with since or for (see point 6). 10 6. FOR & SINCE FOR and SINCE are often used with the present perfect: FOR – followed by a period of time (idée de ‘pendant’ mais se traduit par ‘depuis’) Ted has been in hospital for a year. for six months. for a week. for a long time. SINCE – followed by a point in time (idée de ‘à partir de’, mais se traduit par ‘depuis’) Alice has been at school since last Christmas. since April 1st. since 6 o’clock. since last week. è The question is HOW LONG ...? (= depuis combien de temps?) How long have you had that cold? I’ve had it for three weeks. FOR can also be used with the past simple to express an action which is finished and lasted for a certain period in the past: He lived in Spain FOR ten years before the war. Then he moved to Portugal. 7. DURING & WHILE DURING means PENDANT, DURANT, AU COURS DE. It is used with a period of time. Something happened during that period. The question is WHEN... ? I saw him often during the Easter holidays. Our house burned down during the summer of 1948. During the war, people didn’t travel for the pleasure of travelling. WHILE means PENDANT QUE. It is a conjunction and must be followed by a new clause (= action with a verb). It started to snow while we were waiting for the bus. I like eating peanuts while I’m watching television. 8. Past simple vs present perfect simple Compare: Present perfect simple Past simple I’ve broken my arm so I can’t drive. I broke my arm yesterday. I’ve read 1984 twice already. I read 1984 three years ago. I’ve been to New York. I went to New York last summer. 13 12. QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH Question words: Who…? Whom…? [= old and formal form, complement] What…? What colour…? What time…? Which (one)…? [idea of choice] Whose…? Where…? Why…? // What…for? What …(be) like? [> description] What …(look) like? [> physical description] How…? How much…? How many…? How long…? (=depuis combien de temps ?) How often…? (=quand, à quelle fréquence ?) How (+ adj): How far…? How tall …? How deep…? Etc. Who is this man? Who are you looking at? Who(m) did you meet at the concert? What do you do? What colour is her hair? What time is it? Tea or coffee? Which (one) do you prefer? Which sauce do you prefer: ketchup or mayo? Whose bike it it? /Whose is this bike? // Mine. Where does she come from? Why did you leave?//What did you do that for? What’s the weather like today? / It’s amazing. What’s Jim like? / He’s very open and friendly. What does he look like? /He’s blond and tall. How did you come here? How are you? How much (money) does it cost? How many friends do you have on Facebook? How long have you been in high school? How often do you cut the grass? / I never do it! How far is Le Locle from here? How tall are you? How deep is Lake Neuchâtel? Object questions ≠ subject questions Ø In subject questions, the question word is the subject of the verb so the structure of the sentence is: question word + verb + complement: Who understands you? (‘Who’ = subject) Ø In object questions, which is the majority of questions, we know the subject of the verb: Who do you understand? (‘you’=subject and ‘Who’ = object or complement) 14 The structure of most questions (object questions) is like this: 1 2 3 4 (Question word) Auxiliary, BE, Subject (End of sentence) Modal verbs Who are you? Where does she come from? Are you a student? What colour is your cat? How often do you come here? Can you speak English? Why is he looking at us? Direct questions ≠ indirect questions The order of the words of direct object questions changes when they become indirect. It comes back to ‘normal’, because the real question becomes Can you...? Do you know...? Compare: Ø Object questions: How did you come here? > Can/Could you tell me how you came here? Can she speak English? > Do you know if she can speak English? However, nothing changes for direct subject questions because they are already in a ‘normal’ order. Ø Subject questions: Who won the match? > Can/Could you tell me who won the match last night? Who is interested? > Do you know who is interested? 15 13. PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES SUBJECT Examples OBJECT Examples I you he she it we you they I went to the supermarket yesterday. She plays the piano. me you him her it us you them Tell me a story. We saw them in Capri. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES Examples POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS Examples my your his her its our your their Have you seen my book? They’ve lost their bags. mine = le mien yours his hers --- ours yours theirs Is this your bag? No. It’s yours. Can you give them a pen? They’ve lost theirs. Keep in mind that when a verb has two objects, the following structures are possible: He gave the book to Harriet. He gave the book to her. He gave her the book. He gave it to Harriet. He gave it to her. 18 Ø For irregular plural: These people’s names. My children’s teachers. Women’s clothes. Ø We can use ‘S for time notions: Yesterday’s newspaper. Last week’s meeting. Ø The question connected to possessives is: WHOSE...? Whose cat is this ? = Whose is this cat ? / It’s Fred’s (cat). (= Who does this cat belong to?) Whose telephone is it? Whose bag are they? Whose shoes are these? 19 15. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUTABLE NOUNS Ø There is a mistake in all the sentences except one. Find and correct the mistakes: 1. Could you please send me some informations about the job? 2. I hope you don’t mind if I give you an advice about how to clean the house. 3. She’s just found a work as an ambulance driver. 4. He works in a shop selling furnitures. 5. Unfortunately, when we arrived at the airport terminal, we couldn’t find our luggages. 6. What does Alan look like? - He’s got a long beard and very short hairs. 7. Which do you like best? Coffee or tea? 8. Congratulations! The news about your job are very good. Ø Circle all the uncountable nouns in each list: 1. accommodation hotel luggage suitcase scenery 2. advice information knowledge news suggestion 3. accident bus damage transport 4. bed furniture 5. dish food meal 6. homework job service task work 7. equipment tool 8. instrument music Ø Can you list some nouns that can be both countable and uncountable? 20 Ø THE RULES COUNTABLE NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Ø we can use A/AN in the singular Ø we can’t use a singular count. noun without an article Ø we can use a plural countable noun alone cars, books Ø we can use SOME and ANY in the plural There are some biscuits. There aren’t any biscuits. Is there any biscuits? Ø we can use FEW (= not many) /A FEW (= a small number) in the plural There are a few biscuits.(= some, but not many) There are few biscuits.(= peu de) Ø we can use MANY/A LOT OF/LOTS OF in the plural There are many/ a lot of biscuits. Ø HOW MANY? How many biscuits are there? Ø we can’t use A/AN Ø we can use uncountable nouns without an article: work, music Ø they can’t be made plural Ø we use other words to refer to quantity: a piece of, a small amount of, a great deal of, … Ø we can use SOME and ANY There is some milk. There isn’t any milk. Is there any milk? Ø we can use LITTLE (= not much)/A LITTLE (= a small quantity) There is a little milk. (= un petit peu) There is little milk. (= peu de) Ø we can use MUCH/A LOT OF/LOTS OF There is a lot of milk. There isn’t much milk. Ø HOW MUCH? How much milk is there? EXCEPTIONS: Would you like some…? Could I have some? Ø Some common uncountable nouns in English: accommodation advice behaviour damage experience food furniture homework housework information knowledge luggage media music news paper pollution research scenery transport work travel traffic progress 23 18. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME Use it for Examples Expressions at The time of day At five o’clock At midnight At lunchtime At sunset At 11.45 At night At the weekend/ at weekends At Christmas/ at Easter At the moment/ at present At the same time At the end/the beginning on Days and dates On Friday On Fridays On 16th May 2008 On Christmas Day On my birthday On Friday morning On weekends/ On the weekend = American English On time (= punctual, not late) in Longer periods (months,years, seasons) In October In 1988 In the past/ (the) future In the 18th century In (the) winter In the 1990s In the morning(s) In the afternoon(s) In the evening(s) In a few minutes In six months/ in a week In a moment In time (for something/to do something) (= soon enough) In the end (= finally) No prepositions before last/ next/ this/ every/ tomorrow/yesterday/until: They got married last March. I’ll see you next Friday. Are you seeing her this weekend? They play tennis every Tuesday. We’re watching a movie tomorrow night. 24 19. PREPOSITIONS OF POSITION (1): IN/AT/ON IN for someone/something inside a limited area (town, country, garden): Simon is in his room. We went for a walk in the park. for someone/something inside a building, a room or a container: There are fifty bedrooms in the Queens Hotel. Do you keep your money in this wallet? for cars and taxis: He came home in a taxi. We also say: in a row/queue/line; in the sky; in the world; in an office; in a book; in a picture/a photograph; in the country; in bed. AT when we think about a place in terms of its function or as a meeting place: I’ll see you at the theatre. I keep my tennis racket at the sports club. I’ll meet you at the station. for an event: There were a lot of strangers at the party. We also say: at the top/bottom/end of something; at the front/back of a building/theatre/group of people; at the corner of a street. ON for a point on a fixed line (road, coast...): Brighton is on the south coast of England. for a point on a surface: There’s a picture on the wall. with public transport vehicles, such as buses, trains or planes: They met on a plane. I can’t read on the bus. with floor and ceiling: There’s a spider on the ceiling. There’s a pen on the floor. We also say: on the left/right; on the ground floor/first floor/…; on a map/menu/list; on a farm; on the corner of a street; on the front/back of a letter/piece of paper/... 20.PREPOSITIONS OF POSITION (2) under, behind, opposite etc. next to / beside / between / in front of / behind A is next to B. or A is beside B. B is between A and C. D is in front of B. E is behind B. also A is on the left. C is on the right. B is in the middle (of the group). c ZA Aissitting in front of B. A is sitting opposite C. C is sitting opposite A. 0 Our house is by the sea. (= beside the sea) 0 Who is that man standing by the window? O If you feel cold, why don’t you sit by the fire? by the window under O The cat is under the table. O The girl is standing under a tree. O I’m wearing a jacket under my coat. under the table under a tree above and below A ey A is above the line. (= higher than the line) B ie B is below the line. gc The shelves are (= lower than the line) (MOLT Ac below the pictures. The pictures are above the shelves. 25  28 23. COMPARATIVE & SUPERLATIVE FORMS Ø The comparative – when we compare two things/persons Forms: - er than: plus… que I am funnier than Sam. as…as: aussi…que I’m as funny as Sam. + adj/adv. He’s not as clever as she is.(formal) Or: He’s not as clever as her. (informal) more…: plus… I’m more intelligent than you. (when adj. of three or more syllables) more and more/ de plus en plus -er and –er : He’s more and more intelligent. It’s getting bigger and bigger. less…: moins I was less tired today. Before comparatives you can use: much, a lot, a little, a bit, less, … Ø The superlative – when we compare three or more things/persons __________________ : le plus It’s the most amazing place in the world. (when adj. of three syllables or more) __________________ : le plus It’s the funniest joke I’ve ever heard. It’s the best day of my life. Spelling hot – hotter – the hottest happy – happier – the happiest slow – slower – the slowest large – larger – the largest 29 Ø A few adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms: comparative form superlative form good/well __________________ ____________________ bad/badly __________________ ____________________ far farther the farthest further the furthest When the meaning is: more, additional – only further is possible. In other cases, you can use either farther or further. much/many __________________ ____________________ Ø Examples I have more cake than you. I have a little more cake than you. I have much more cake than you. He ate most of the cake. More people… Most people… More and more people… Most of the people… More slowly/easily/quickly,… Ø BUT we use the structure ‘the…the…’ + comparative to say that one thing depends on another: The warmer the weather, the better I feel. The less I know, the better. 30 24. THE FUTURE (1) There are 3 basic forms in English to express the future: 1. WILL + INFINITIVE without TO (I/ you/ he/ she/ it/ we/ you/ they will work.) Contractions : will = ’ll ; will not = won’t. Ø We can use will to predict the future: Tomorrow will be another cold day in all parts of the country. Martin will probably phone us this evening. Ø We also use will when for spontaneous decisions made at the moment of speaking: ‘Would you like something to drink?’ ‘Oh, thank you! I’ll have some orange juice.’ ‘I’ll pick you up at 8 o’clock’. These spontaneous decisions are often offers or requests of help. Ø with I think/maybe/perhaps: Maybe we won’t be ready on time after all. I think I’ll leave early today. Ø SHALL is sometimes used in questions (only with I or we) to make suggestions or offers: Shall I carry your bag for you? Shall we go to a restaurant?