History of Geographic Thoughts, Study notes of Human Geography

Download History of Geographic Thoughts and more Study notes Human Geography in PDF only on Docsity! 1.1 General Character of Geography in the Ancient Period-Contribution of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Strabo and Ptolemy Greeks The Greeks pioneered in many branches of knowledge. The period of unprecedented advancements in various fields of knowledge by Greek scholars is known as “Golden Age of Greece”. They borrowed many of the concepts of astronomy, geometry and mathematics from the Egyptians, Chaldaeans, Sumerians and Assyrians. Geography as a field of learning in the western world had its beginnings among the scholars of ancient Greece. The geographical knowledge in the earliest ages was, however limited to the countries and islands adjacent to Greece and the group of nations surrounding the Aegean Sea. Between 5th and 3rd century BC, the Greek colonies were established in different parts of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Miletus, owing to its location, became the main centre of geographical enquiry during 5th century BC. The early expeditions of Hanno along the western coast of Libya and that of Alexander towards the east provided knowledge of the distant places and its people. The establishment of the famous library museum at Alexandria further paved the way for the development of scientific discoveries. It was in Alexandria that Eratosthenes and Hipparchus made their observations about the size, shape and circumference of the earth. HERODOTUS (484/485-425 BC) Introduction to Herodotus  Herodotus was the first and foremost Greek historian, and is regarded as the ‘Father of History’. Little is known of his personal history.  The Histories - his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced - is a record of his ‘inquiry’ being an investigation of the origins of the Greco-Roman Wars.  He placed historical events in a geographical setting; some of his writings are truly geographical in character.  He not only described geographical phenomena as, for example, the annual flow of the Nile but also attempted to explain them. He was also one of the pioneer geographers.  In fact, he is credited with the very old idea that all history must be treated geographically and all geography must be treated historically. Geographic Knowledge and Travels  Herodotus was a great traveler and his contribution to geography is highly remarkable as he wrote after making his personal observations during his many years of travel.  Towards the west, he knew the Mediterranean shores as far as southern Italy, where he resided during the latter part of his life.  He travelled through the straits into the Black Sea.  He also went eastward over much of the territory of the Persian Empire, visiting Susa and Babylon.  Toward the south, he visited Egypt and went up the Nile.  Moreover, he was quite familiar with the coasts of Asia Minor, as also with the island of the Aegean, the mainland of Greece. Division and Boundaries of Land  The land, according to him, is divided into two equal parts, one lying to the north of the Caucasus mountains and the Caspian Sea. Thus, Europe was taken to be equivalent to Asia and Libya (Africa) combined.  Herodotus was also the first scholar who divided the world landmass into three continents, namely, Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa).  The size of Europe has, however, been taken as equivalent to Asia and Libya (Africa) combined. It is surprising that he took the western frontier of Egypt as the boundary between Asia and Libya. Asia and Europe were divided by the Don river, the Caspian Sea and Araxes (Amu).  About the Nile River, he stated that it flowed in a direction from west to east, dividing Libya through the middle into two parts. The source of the Nile was in the west of Libya.  He also insisted that Egypt was occupied by Egyptians and they are not divided into Asians and Libyans along the river. This can be taken as one of the earliest discussions of regional boundaries. Understanding of Continents and Seas  So far as the spread of continents is concerned, Herodotus did not have a clear idea and could not fix the northern limit of Europe.  He also did not have any idea of the existence of the north-eastern seas.  On the southern side, he felt that the ocean sprawled continuously from the coast of India to that of Spain.  He was familiar with the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean (Arythraean) and the Atlantic Ocean and believed in only two inland seas, one stretching northward and the second eastward from the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean respectively, i.e. Red Sea (Arabian Gulf) and the Mediterranean Sea. He was ignorant of the Persian Gulf.  So far as the Black Sea is concerned, he had himself navigated in it. He wrote that the Black Sea, ‘the most wonderful of all seas’, is 1,100 stadia (110 miles) in length and at the widest portion it is 1,300 stadia (130 miles).  Herodotus is the first geographer who regarded the Caspian as an inland sea, whereas Hecataeus and his contemporaries as well as all the geographers of Alexandrian era considered it as an arm of the Northern Ocean. Geographical Explanations and Insights  He insisted that the Nile Valley, especially its delta, has been built by silt and mud brought down by the river from Ethiopia.  He explained the process of delta making and stressed the point that the delta of Meander River (West Turkey) was also the result of river deposition.  Similarly, he tried to establish a relationship between temperature and the movement of winds. Herodotus’ Knowledge of Asia and Africa  Herodotus knowledge of Asia was confined mainly to the Persian Empire which sprawled over the whole of Western Asia.  He was not familiar with the fertile Gangetic plain and considered the Indus as flowing in a west east direction.  Herodotus also possessed enormous information about the continent of Africa. His knowledge of the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea was as accurate as that of its northern coast. Divisions and Zones of Africa  With the western coast of Africa, Herodotus was less acquainted. The northern coast of Africa was divided into the eastern and western portions. The eastern part was sandy and its people were nomads. The land was barren. The western tract was characterized by hills, fertile valleys and dense forests. The western coast of the coastal Africa was occupied by primitive tribes.  Herodotus divided the interior parts of Africa into three latitudinal zones. The first zone is the Mediterranean coast from Atlas Mountains to the delta of Nile. The second zone to the south of it is the area of 'wild beasts'. By the Arabs this was called the 'land of dates'. The third zone which lies further south is the true Sahara desert. ERATOSTHENES (276-194 BC) Introduction to Eratosthenes  Eratosthenes is often identified as the ‘father of geography’ as among other contributions, he was the first to coin the word ‘Geography’.  Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician, geographer, astronomer, poet and music theorist.  Approach to Political and Natural Boundaries: Strabo's geographical treatise, namely, Geographica was designed not for geographers but for politicians and statesmen. It was Strabo who stressed on the division of the world into natural and not into political boundaries. In his opinion, divisions of an area can be established only by boundaries and geography should divide the world by the ‘natural boundaries of lands’ rather than the ‘political boundaries of states’.  Contribution of Mathematical Geography: In the field of mathematical geography, Strabo's contribution cannot be termed outstanding when compared with that of his predecessor (Eratosthenes). His work was not designed for astronomers and mathematical geographers. Nor was it meant to help them to determine the shape and size of the earth, its relation with heavenly bodies and the important latitudes (Equator, Tropic of Cancer, and Tropic of Capricorn).  Understanding Earth’s Divisions and Zones: He also assumes the division of the earth into five zones and the circles upon the sphere derived from the motion of the celestial bodies, i.e. the equator, the zodiac, the tropics and the Arctic Circle. He regarded Ireland as the most northerly of all the known lands.  Strabo’s Work in Physical Geography: In the field of physical geography also, his work cannot be regarded as outstanding but there is no denying the fact that it was a great improvement over his predecessors' works. Unfortunately, Strabo gave little attention to topographic features, mountains, rivers and their courses while giving geographical accounts of different regions.  Strabo's work is mainly historical. Strabo’s Objective of Presenting a General Survey of the Habitable World:  The main objective of Strabo in his geographical treatise was to present a general survey of the entire habitable world known during that period.  Spain, Gaul (France), the coast of the Atlantic, south-eastern parts of Britain - all these areas were fairly known and thus the Romans opened out all the western parts of Europe up to the river Albis (Elbe) and the region beyond the Danube and the river Tyras.  The tracts on the north of Black Sea and along its eastern coast to the borders of Colchis were plotted in the world map of Strabo. Strabo's Knowledge and Limitations in Geographical Mapping:  With regard to India, the Peninsula of Hindustan continued to be unknown, and the Ganges was regarded as flowing into the Eastern Ocean.  Regarding Africa, the upper course of Nile (Cinnamon Land) was the southern-most limit, as far as Strabo was concerned.  He did not describe Mauretania and the western coast of Africa. Geographical Descriptions  Introduction and Historical Review: The first two volumes of his Geographica are devoted to an introduction of the subject in which he discusses the aims and objectives of his treatise and the fundamental principles on which he conceives the general features. These two volumes can be regarded as the most difficult and unsatisfactory part of his work. These volumes comprise a historical review of the progress of geography from the earliest days but the approach is not methodical.  Discussion of Eratosthenes’ Work: In the second volume, the author discusses Eratosthenes' work on the world map. Eratosthenes provided valuable information about Asia, which was largely adopted by Strabo without significant changes. However, Strabo had more knowledge about the region between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, although it was still incomplete. Strabo mistakenly believed that the Caspian Sea connected to the Northern Ocean. Little or no change was made in the details of Africa, but Strabo added new information to the map of Europe, particularly in the north-western parts.  Geography of Europe (Spain, Gaul & Britain): The third volume focuses on Europe, particularly Spain, Gaul (France), and Britain. Strabo relied on the accounts of Caesar and other scholars for information about these regions. In Spain, he mistakenly believed that the Pyrenees formed a continuous chain from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea. In the last section, Strabo discusses the islands near Spain, with a detailed description of Gadis and important commercial centre of the time.  Geography of Gaul, Britain & the Alps: The fourth volume focuses on Gaul, Britain, and the Alps. He considered the Liger, the Rhine and other rivers to be an efficient trade and transportation network. Strabo provides interesting insights into the primitive tribes of Iberia (Spain) and the advanced societies of Gaul. He mistakenly thought that Ireland was located north of Britain and estimated its length to be greater than its width.  Geography of Italy & Sicily: The fifth and sixth volumes discuss Italy and Sicily. Strabo followed the popular belief of Italy's north-south direction, but his map showed Italy stretching from west to east. He considered the Alps as Italy's northern boundary. He provided limited information on Corsica and Sardinia, and the description of these islands is brief and incomplete.  Geography of Central Europe & Black Sea Region: In the seventh volume, Strabo provided a brief and incomplete account of the countries east of the Rhine and north of the Danube. His knowledge of Central Europe and the region north of the Black Sea was limited, leading to significant gaps in his description. This area was inhabited by barbarians and the Greeks had very little commercial relations with the interior.  Geography of Greece and Neighboring Islands: The eighth, ninth, and tenth volumes focus on the geography of Greece and neighboring islands. His own visits to Greece were limited, so he collected information second-hand, relying on poets rather than historians like Herodotus. Strabo's description of the northern part of Greece was particularly inaccurate. He provides limited information on the physical geography of Greece, mainly focusing on inlets, straits, and the underground courses of some rivers in the limestone topography.  Geography of Asia: Six volumes- eleventh to sixteenth- are devoted to the geographical descriptions of Asia. In all these books, he relied upon Eratosthenes, especially with reference to the configuration, topography and drainage system. He assumed that Taurus Mountains traverse Asia from west to east. He took Taurus mountains as the dividing line between the Northern Asia and the Southern Asia." He divided Northern Asia into four divisions (1) Tanais to Caspian Sea; (2) Caspian to Scythians; (3) Medians and Armenians, and (4) Asia Minor.  Border Land of Asia and Europe: The eleventh volume is devoted to the border land of Asia and Europe taking river Tanais as the boundary between these two continents. In this volume, he gives an account of the land lying between Black Sea and Caspian and Parthia and Media.  Geography of Cappadocia, Pontus, and the northern provinces of Asia Minor: In volumes 12 to 14, Strabo describes Cappadocia, Pontus, and the northern provinces of Asia Minor along the Black Sea coast. Being a native of the region, his regional and historical accounts are reliable.  Geography of Mainland Asia: Volumes 15 and 16 cover the mainland of Asia, south of the Taurus Mountains, including Assyria, Persia, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Arabia, and India. He describes India's length from west to east, with Cape Comorin projecting southeast. He mentions the Ganges originating from the Emodi Mountains (Himalayas) and flowing south, then east, passing by Patliputra, Patna before reaching the Eastern Sea. His knowledge of the Indus and Ganges tributaries is vague, and he does not describe the Indian Peninsula. Strabo places Ceylon at the southern limit of the known world.  Geography of Africa (Especially Egypt): The seventeenth and final volume of Strabo's work focuses on Africa, with the majority of the book dedicated to the geography of Egypt. Strabo gathered detailed information about Egypt from the library at Alexandria, and he personally traveled up to the upper reaches of the Nile River. He provides thorough descriptions of the Nile delta, the Nile's sources, and the annual inundation of the river. Strabo explains that the flooding, a topic of much curiosity among early Greeks, was believed to be caused by heavy summer rains in the mountains of upper Ethiopia. PTOLEMY (90-168 AD) Introduction and Background of Ptolemy  Claudius Ptolemy was a native of Egypt a Roman province.  He lived and wrote at Alexandria about the middle of the 2nd century of the Christian era.  He was a Greco-Roman writer of Alexandria, known as a mathematician, astronomer, poet and geographer.  Throughout his life he stayed at Alexandria, where he died in around 168 AD.  Very little is known about Ptolemy's place of birth and early life and belief. Contribution in Mathematical Geography  Ptolemy was one of those geniuses who developed sound principles of mathematical geography.  His own contribution in the field of geography, especially in mathematical geography, is highly commendable and has been acknowledged throughout the ages.  His concept of the universe coincided with that of Aristotle: the earth was a sphere that remained stationary in the centre while the celestial bodies revolved round it in circular orbits. Ptolemy’s Works and Treatises  Ptolemy regarded the detailed topographical description of places and their history, which Ptolemy called chorography.  Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. These three treatises include (1) Syntaxis (Mathematical Treatise), (ii) the Geography, and (iii) Astrology.  The Syntaxis:  His best known work is The Syntaxis.  The Syntaxis presents in detail the mathematical theory of the motion of the Sun, the Moon and planets.  Ptolemy's geometric models, used only to predict the positions of these bodies, employed combinations of circles known as epicycles, with the framework of the basic earth-centred system (geocentric).  He believed that the stars were fixed points in a rotating sphere. He stated that the planets are much closer to the earth than the stars, but are farther away than the moon.  He devoted two parts of The Synatxis to a catalogue of stars. He described a mathematical arrangement of the stars and gave the celestial latitudes and longitudes, as well as magnitude (brightness) for each of them. This catalogue includes 1,022 stars grouped into 48 constellations.  The Geography:  His second most important work The Geography, also known as The Guide to Geography, opens with an excellent theory of map projection. The book is a catalogue of places with their latitudes and longitudes and describes briefly each continent, country and tribe.  It also contains a map of the world including Europe, North Africa, and most of Asia as well as 26 maps of specific areas.  The book The Guide to Geography consisted of a list of all known places tabulated according to latitudes and longitudes- the system - Ptolemy devised himself.  He also opined: 'Geography is a science which deals with the art of map-making" This conception dominates the entire book of Ptolemy.  The Guide to Geography consisted of eight volumes. He also promulgated the concept of Terra-Australis- Incognita declaring that the Indian Ocean is a closed sea. Ptolemy’s Geographical Concepts and Models  The major contribution of Ptolemy to the field of mathematical geography can be studied under the sub- headings: (i) circumference of the earth, (ii) dimensions of the habitable world, (iii) prime meridian, graticule and design of projection, and finally, (iv) the salient features of his map and geographical account of the major features of the different parts of the world. Ancient Indian contribution to geography came through various fields of learning as Philosophy, Cosmology, Mathematics, Astrology and Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry and Metallurgy, Science and Technology, Medicine and Linguistics. In fact, the Indian scholars contributed significantly in the growth and development of geography and its allied sciences. Although, the classical Indian scholars have richly contributed to the various fields of geographical study as physical geography, regional geography, climatology, mathematical and practical geography. Their knowledge, particularly in astronomy (Khagol Shashtra), was fascinating. The ancient Indian scholars dealt with many problems pertaining to Cosmology (the science of Universe), Cosmogony (the origin of Universe) and Cosmography (the description of Universe). In the Padma Puranas a difference has been made between Bhogol (Geography, Khogol (The Science of Space) and Jyotishakra (Astrology). Indian Varahamihira (505-587 AD)  Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer who lived in Ujjain.  He is considered to be one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of legendary ruler Yashodharman of Malwa.  He contributed significantly in the field of astronomy and mathematical geography.  He also described the causes of solar and lunar eclipses and their impact on human society. Brahmagupta (597-668 AD)  Brahmaguita was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He wrote two important works on mathematics and astronomy.  Brahmagupta was the first to give rules to compute with zero. Bhaskara (Bhaskaracharya) (1114-1185 AD)  Bhaskaracharya was an Indian mathematician and astronomer.  He was born near Bijapur, Karnataka.  Bhaskara is said to have been the Head of an astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the leading mathematical centre of medieval India.  His main work Siddhanta Shiromani, consists of four parts that deal with arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets, and spheres respectively.  He is particularly known for the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to astronomical problems and computations.  He was a pioneer in some of the principles of differential calculus.  He was perhaps the first to conceive the differential coefficient and differential calculus. Aryabhata (476-550 AD)  Aryabhata was a great mathematician, astronomer and geographer of the classical Indian period.  His works include the Aryabhatiya (499 AD) when he was only 23 years old and the Arya Siddhanta. These works deal mainly with mathematics and astronomy.  Aryabhatiya provides no information about his place of birth.  His major work, Aryabhatiya is a mixture of mathematics and astronomy. The mathematical part of Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane, trigonometry and spherical geometry. It also contains fractions, quadratic equations, sums of power series and table sines.  He used letters of alphabet to denote numbers, expressing quantities.  He believed that the planets’ orbits are elliptical rather than circular.  He correctly insisted that the Earth rotates about its axis daily, and the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the motion caused by the rotation of the earth.  He described the geocentric model of the solar system, in which the Sun and Moon are each carried by epicycles.  According to him the order of the planets in terms of distance from Earth is the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the asterisms.  Solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata.  He states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. The Universe and its Origin  The universe and its origin remained a point of speculation among all the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Babylonia, China, Greece and Rome.  The ancient Indian scholars of the Vedic and Puranic periods gave considerable thought to this matter.  The ancient Indian literature deals with many problems pertaining to cosmology and cosmography.  The cosmology of the Vedas which has a strong bearing on the Puramic views may be summarized as (a) artistic origin of the universe, (b) mechanical origin, (c) instrumental origin, and (d) philosophical origin.  Artistic Origin: The Rigveda mentions a number of gods who performed various functions during the process of creation. These gods were artists who contributed their skill to the construction and completion of the universe. They wove various materials into a pattern, and shaped the universe by blasting and smelting.  Mechanical Origin: The views regarding the mechanical origin of the universe developed in the last phase of Rigveda period. It suggests the sacrifice (or disintegration) of the primeval body who is conceived as soul and the nucleus of the universe and an embodiment of the supreme spirit. The sky, the wind, the moon, the sun, and all the terrestrial elements were the result of sacrifice ceremony.  Instrumental Origin: The instrumental origin of universe is based on the occurrence of parent bodies from which the universe was created. Agni (Fire), Indra, Soma, Surya (Sun), Rudra and the other gods are mentioned as having been instrumental in the creation of the earth and the heaven- the twin parents of the whole universe. The union of the earth and the heaven results in the birth of the sun which is the most important agent in the creation of the world.  Philosophical Origin: The philosophical theory of cosmogony has its origin in the song of creation which says that in the beginning there was neither being or not-being. There was no atmosphere, no sky, no days, and no nights.  Unlike our modern scientists, the ancient Indian astronomers believed in a geocentric universe.  In the Rigveda, we come across the description of 34 heavenly bodies including the sun, the moon, five grahas (planets) and 27 constellations. The five planets have been described as the five gods. The astronomers of the Puranic period established nine planets, namely, the Sun, the Moon, the Mars, the Mercury, the Jupiter, the Venus, the Saturn, the Rahu and the Ketu.  Mercury has been taken to be of green colour, Venus of white colour, Mars of red colour, Jupiter of yellow colour and Saturn of black colour. Earth  The concept of prithvi (earth) is the most basic concept in the study of geography. The word prithvi (earth) has been used profusely in the Vedas and the Puranas.  The word Bhogal (geography) in the ancient Indian literature signifies the spherical shape of the earth. The spherical shape of the earth was visualized by Aitareya Brahmana, who stated that sun neither sets, nor rises.  There is other evidence also like the shadow of the earth during lunar eclipse which is circular. From this it may be inferred that the earth is spherical in shape. Origin of Earth:  As far as the origin of the earth is concerned, many of the facts as put forward by the ancient Indian scholars were more or less accurately known.  They believed in the solidification of earth from gaseous matter.  The earth’s crust, according to them, is made of hard rocks, clayey material and sandy material.  The Puranas mention the earth to be apparently floating on the water like a sailing boat on the river.  They were also aware of the fact that there is more land surface in the Northern Hemisphere. Size of Earth  Earth is an oblate spheroid slightly flattened at the poles; its equatorial diameter measures 12,757 km, and its polar diameter 12,713 km.  In the Vedic and Puranic literature, no definite information regarding earth's dimensions is available, but later literature of the 5th and 6th centuries AD on astronomy gives somewhat convincing information. Eclipses  The ancient Indian scholars were also conscious of the causes of grahnas (eclipses). It was because of this knowledge that they advocated performing of some rituals and ceremonies on the days when eclipses occurred.  The Aryans considered an eclipse inauspicious and a herald of disaster. It was also believed that if a solar and a lunar eclipse occurred in the same month, it becomes more disastrous.  Varahamihira had considered the effects of eclipse month wise and emphasized the fact that eclipse in December leads to famine and its occurrence in April and May results in good rainfall, while an eclipse in March and June are inauspicious. Latitudes and Longitudes (Akshansh and Deshantar):  The position of a point on the earth’s surface in relation to equator, expressed as its angular distance from the equator, is known as latitude, while longitude is the angular distance of a given point measured in degrees east or west of the Greenwich Meridian (Prime Meridian).  Akshansh and Deshantar are the terms used for ‘latitudes’ and ‘longitudes’ respectively in the ancient Indian literature.  Puranas have a reference of three imaginary lines of latitudes passing through Equatorial belt, North Pole and South Pole.  Accordingly, three major regions have been identified in the Literature, viz. Equatorial, Northern Polar and Southern Polar. The North Pole has been called as Zenith and the South Pole as Nadir. The South Pole was truly considered as the antipode of the North Pole, i.e. diametrically opposite to it.  However, the world was not believed to exist beyond Equator, as the region here was compared to hell of the earth. The Eastern part, on the other hand, was believed to be ‘the land of Gods’.  This thinking is in consonance with that of the Europeans in the Early Medieval period, when the Dark Ages prevailed and the East in ‘T-in-O’ Maps was assumed to be the place of Adam and Eve. Cardinal Points:  These imaginary lines, the position of Sun and various stars have helped them to determine local time at various places.  In Rigveda, there is formulated idea of four main directions, viz. Purva (East), Paschim (West), Uttar (North) and Dakshin (South). By adding Zenith (Meru) and Nadir (Bhadvanala) it was raised to six.  But, afterwards, ten directions have been frequently mentioned in the Puranic literature.  The ten directions and the ruling deity of each are mentioned below: Earthquakes and Volcanoes:  The knowledge regarding the earthquakes in this period is excellent.  For ‘earthquakes’ the term bhukamp has been used in Puranas.  It was assumed that the deities of Air, Fire and Water, i.e., Vayu, Agni, Indra and Varun cause the earthquakes.  The rishis and scholars had a fairly good knowledge about the origin of earthquakes.  Similarly they had good knowledge about the origin of volcanoes (jwalamukhis). Atmosphere, Weather, Climate and Seasons:  The evidence of Vedas and Puranas clearly states that the Aryan were familiar with atmosphere, weather, climate and seasons.  According to the ancient Indian scholars, the earth was surrounded by antriksa (space/atmosphere)  They were also aware of its vast extent and the occurrence of various weather phenomena here, as rain, winds, clouds, lightening, fog and frost etc.  Bhaskaracharya has conceived the thickness of this atmosphere around the earth to be 12 yojanas (or 154 kms).  All the weatherly and climatic activities occur here. (Deities) and rich in diamonds, minerals and other precious stones; Vindhayans, the extensive mountains with hundreds of peaks, variegated trees and creepers; Mahendra Mali, the Eastern Ghats; Sahyadri, the Western Ghats; Rika, the mountain range from Ken to Ton rivers north of Vindhayans; and Suktiman, the mountains of Khandera, Ajanta and Golkunda.  The descriptions are also available for a number of Himalayan and other Inland rivers.  Rigveda has mentioned various rivers originating from Himalayas, viz. Ganga, Yamuna, Brahamputra, Saraswati, Sutlej, Chenab, Jhelum, upper part of Indus, Sindhu (Indus), Kabul, Gomati, etc.  Among the inland river the important ones are Narmada, Tapti (Tapi), Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Tungbhadra.  However, the most elaborate descriptions exist about Ganga and Brahamputra. The religious flavour is very strong in these descriptions, as the rivers have been considered sacred to be worshipped as Goddesses in Hindu mythology. 1.3 Concept of Geography in the Medieval Period-Dark Age for Science  The period known as the Dark Age in Europe was marked by turmoil and decline in the Roman Empire, resulting in a lack of progress in literature, science, and exploration in Europe and the southern parts of the world.  Despite the stagnation in Europe, advancements in geography and exploration were still taking place in other regions such as China, India, and Southeast Asia.  The Dark Age spanned approximately 500 years, from 200 to 700 AD, during which there was a decline in original works in various fields of science and humanities.  The deterioration in the theory of geography and exploration during this period was mainly attributed to several factors: a) Parts of the Roman Empire, including Dacia, Gaul, and Spain, fell into the hands of barbarians, and North Africa was seized by the Vandals. This led to a decline in travel safety even within the empire. b) The Middle and Far East came under the control of Persians, Arabs, and Abyssinians, making the northern overland route through the Dariel Pass (Astrakhan) insecure. c) The decline in the theoretical study of geography was also influenced by the church's opposition to scientific inquiry. Many Christian writers discouraged scientific investigations into the shape and size of the earth, citing religious reasons. Some even described the earth as a flat surface, conflicting with the prevailing knowledge of a spherical earth.  The period witnessed the decadence of Roman power, resulting in a lack of significant contributions. Religion, particularly the dominance of the church, hindered scientific questioning and critical analysis. Scholars of the time mainly produced copies of ancient works, rejecting anything that contradicted church dogmas.  Concepts of the world which had been developed in Greek and Roman times were reshaped to conform to the teaching of the Church. The earth became a flat disc with Jerusalem at its centre.  Christianity played a significant role during this era, leading to the loss of ancient scientific concepts and the emergence of unscientific cosmogonies based on religious scriptures. Scientifically incorrect views about the shape of the earth, such as a flat earth bounded by high walls were propagated.  Map-making during the Christian Europe period witnessed a decline in accuracy. Previously precise coastlines were lost, and maps became more imaginative. The prevalent T-O maps depicted the inhabited world as a circular figure surrounded by the ocean, with Jerusalem at the center and various mythical places, beasts, and dragons inserted. These maps persisted for a considerable time. The figure was oriented towards the east. In the middle of the land area was a T-shaped arrangement of water bodies. The stem of the T represented the Mediterranean. The top of the T represented the Aegean and Black Seas on the one hand, and the Nile river and Red Sea on the other. The three divisions -Europe, Asia and Africa - were accepted as standard. The centre of the inhabited world, just above the centre of the 'T', was Jerusalem. At the Far East, beyond the limit of the inhabited world, was Paradise. This type of cartography continued to be in vogue for a pretty long time.  The understanding of the world's extent became vague, ignoring concepts like sphericity, distances, and latitudes. New theories were proposed based on incomplete scriptural texts, dismissing Greek and Roman scientific ideas as pseudo-scientific.  The map-makers of the Dark Age focused more on artistic and symbolic expression rather than accurate representation. Maps were frequently distorted, and the typical world map of the time remained a disk, known as the "T-in-O" or the "wheel" map.  Overall, the Dark Age was characterized by limited discoveries, a shrinking empire, restricted trade, and a lack of industrial research and the spirit of discovery. Most books produced during this period were compilations from older works.  The Dark has been divided into two divisions:  Early Medieval Period:  During the Early Medieval period, which roughly spanned from the 5th to the 10th century AD, the geographical knowledge and exploration in Europe experienced a decline compared to the preceding Greco-Roman era.  The fall of the Western Roman Empire resulted in a fragmented political landscape. Various Germanic tribes established their kingdoms, leading to a decentralization of power and a lack of centralized efforts in geographical exploration and mapping.  The knowledge of geography during this time relied heavily on earlier works, such as the writings of Ptolemy, Pomponius Mela, etc which were copied and preserved by monks and scholars.  The limited geographical information available in this period was primarily derived from accounts of missionary travels, pilgrimages, and religious texts, as the Christian Church played a central role in society and education.  Monasteries became centers of learning and preserved ancient geographic works. Monks engaged in copying and translating classical texts, contributing to the preservation of geographical knowledge.  Due to limited travel and exploration, there was little expansion of geographical understanding beyond existing knowledge inherited from the Roman period.  Late Medieval Period:  The Late Medieval period, also known as the High Middle Ages, covered the 11th to the 15th century AD. It witnessed some revival in geographical knowledge and exploration.  The Crusades, military campaigns sanctioned by the Church to regain control of the Holy Land, led to increased contact and exchange between Europe and the Middle East. European knights, soldiers, and merchants travelled to the Levant, bringing back new geographic information.  The travels of Marco Polo, an Italian merchant, during the late 13th century provided valuable firsthand accounts of his extensive journeys across Asia, expanding European knowledge of distant lands.The development of trade routes, such as the Silk Road and the maritime routes to Asia, facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and geographical information.  European explorers, like the Portuguese during the 15th century, ventured further into the Atlantic and along the African coast, gradually expanding their understanding of the world.  Advances in cartography during the Late Medieval period included the introduction of more accurate navigational instruments, improvements in mapmaking techniques, and the creation of more detailed maps.  The spread of universities across Europe led to the establishment of geography as an academic discipline, with scholars beginning to question and critically analyze existing geographical knowledge.  Despite these advancements, it is important to note that the geographical understanding during the Late Medieval period still contained inaccuracies and misconceptions, such as the belief in mythical lands or the persistence of medieval cosmological models. 1.4 Arab Geographers During the medieval period many changes took place all over the world. The political map was altered with the decline of old kingdoms and empires and the rise of the new ones. However, more important changes were the changes in social and economic life. These changes were very marked in Western Europe. The development may be studied under sub-phases: Dark Age (500-100 A.D); Rise of Arab School of Thought (800-1400 A.D.); and Age of Discovery (1400-1750). The Arab civilization became the most advanced during medieval period. In the early years of the 7th century, Prophet Mohammad founded Islam. This now religion, within a very short period of time, not only united the warring tribes but also led to the establishment of a big empire and the building of a civilization, which in many respects was the finest civilization of the time. The followers of Prophet Mohammad, from 8th to 13th century, made significant contribution to the field of geography. They embarked on a conquest of the world outside of Arabia. In 641 AD, they conquered Persia, and in 642 AD, took control of Egypt. They swept westward across the Sahara and by 732 AD all the Great Desert was under their control. They crossed through the Iberian Peninsula in France. For some 900 years, the Muslims ruled most of Spain and Portugal. The Muslim rule was also extended to Central Asia, Northern China India, eastern coast of Africa, Malaysia and some islands of the Arabian Sea and South-East Asia. With the patronage of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid, an academy called 'Baitul-Hikma' was established. In this academy, scholars from all over the world were invited to teach and assist the Arab academics and to help them in the translation of the Greek, Latin, Persian and Sanskrit works into Arabic. The main factors responsible for the growth and development of geographical knowledge in Arab world may summarize as under: Ibn-Hawqal-Abu-al-Mohammad Qasim (912-978 AD) Biography  Early Life and Interests: Ibn-Hawqal was a resident of Baghdad. He was probably born upper Mesopotamia (at Jezera). His real name was Mohammad Abdul-Qasim. From his childhood, he was interested in books of voyages, explorations, travelogues etc, and the modes of life of distant tribes and nations.  Travels and Exploration: He started his travels in May 943 AD and visited on foot different countries of the world, within the orbit of the authority of Holy Quran. The countries and regions visited by him include North Africa, southern edge of Sahara, Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Azarbaijan, al-Jazira, Iraq, Khuzistan, Fars (Iran), Khawarizm and Transoxania and finally Sicily after which we lose trace of him. Treatise of Ibn-Hawqal  The treatise of Ibn-Hawqal is entitled “A Book of Routes and Realms”.  In the preface to his book, Ibn-Hawqal remarks: “I have described the earth in length and breadth and I have written about the Muslim countries. I have indicated the limits of each region, the cities and the districts included therein, the rivers which irrigate it, the bodies of water which modify the surface, the resources which are available, the various kinds of taxes which are imposed there, the routes which traverse it, the distances which separate it from the adjacent countries, the types of commerce which is successfully carried on there; and I have reassembled all the information which has made geography an interesting science for princes and persons of all classes”. Ibn-Hawqal’s Account of Europe  Besides the Arab world, Ibn-Hawqal has given an account of the European countries and established that the Caspian Sea did not have any connection with the Northern Ocean.  The Black Sea communicated with the Northern Sea by a channel which may be an arm of the sea.  According to him, Europe was an island. Insights into Africa and Eastern Region  About Africa, he wrote that its eastern coast adjoining the Red Sea turns to the east.  He also described countries and peoples bordering the Islamic world.  His description about the Turks, the Khazars, the towns of Southern Italy, the Sudanese and the Nibians are highly reliable.  Among the main works of Al-Biruni include Kitab-al Hind, Al-Qanun-al Masudi (The Canon of King Masud), Vestige of the Past Athar-al-Bagija, Tarikhul-Hind, Kitab-al-Jamakir, and Kitab al-Saydna.  He translated from Sanskrit into Arabic the original title of Patanjali which contains valuable information on India and China.  He wrote 27 books on geography, four each on cartography, geodesy, and climatology, and seven books on comets, meteors and surveying.  Al-Biruni's academic interests and activities encompassed a wide variety of subjects, ranging from abstract theories of philosophy to the practical sciences of mathematics, geography, geology, physics, astronomy and medicine. Astronomy and Astronomical Observations  It is clear from his work that he made astronomical observations in the cities of Ghazna, Kabul, Lamghan, Peshawar, and Multan.  His main field of study, however, was astronomy. He devised his own method of determining the radius of the earth by means of the observation of the height of mountain.  In much the same way, there were people who ignored geography as something without any utility, though the Holy Quran is full of episodes of travels and adventures, e.g. Prophet Abraham's journey from Ur, Moses' journey from Egypt and the hijrah of the Prophet of Islam (peace be on him). After analysing these unscientific tendencies, Al-Biruni produced convincing arguments for establishing the claims of physical sciences.  He provided illustrations of the daily use of mathematical and astronomical knowledge. This knowledge helped in ascertaining the influences of the sun and the moon in the form of what we know as the seasons and tides.  About the moon, he asserted that it does not move in a perfect circle. Its maximum and minimum distances differ appreciably. It changes its path and is variable.  He discussed the lunar month on a synodic basis, i.e. by referring to its position, and return to it, in relation to the sun.  Al-Biruni measured the longest and the shortest distance of the moon and the earth. He was not sure of the diameter of the moon.  About the stars, he was of the view that it was practically impossible to determine the number of heavenly bodies (stars) even in a small portion of the sky. He was also aware of the limitations of the instruments of his age.  Al-Biruni adopted the Greek nomenclature of 48 figures and 12 constellations arranged on a belt. He rejected Aristotle's contention that the 'Milky Way' was under the sphere of planets and correctly estimated it to belong to the highest sphere of the stars.  He believed that as there was no way to find out the parallel of the fixed stars it was impossible to determine their distance and magnitude.  Mars was accepted as one and a half times the sun's diameter. Al-Biruni used Indian figures about the distance and magnitude of the stars.  Regarding the planets, Al-Biruni followed Ptolemy taking his works to be the most authentic and correct. From the earth towards the stars, the planets were arranged by him in the following ascending order: Moon, Mercury. Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.  Al-Biruni dedicated himself only to astronomy, yet he excelled in mathematics also. In that age, mathematics consisted of arithmetic, geometry, physics and music.  He was also interested in physics, though he had no interest in music. In his book, Kitabal Hind, he discussed Indian beliefs, Hindu literature, grammar, metre, chess, etc. but totally ignored Indian music Understanding of the World and Seas  Al-Biruni had special interest in geomorphology and paleontology. He compared the different fossils discovered in the plains of Arabia, Jurjan and Khwarizm along the Caspian Sea.  According to him, the Indo-Gangetic plain was formed by the silt brought by the rivers.  He correctly estimated the known habitable world as greater in length, i.e. from China in the east to Morocco and Spain in the west. The seas limited the inhabitable world. The known world was divided into age-old, seven-fold divisions of seven aqalim.  Al-Biruni also had an accurate idea of the different bays, gulfs and smaller seas. He referred to the Ice Sea in the north-east of Europe and in the west of Tangier and Spain. He  In the south of Europe, he was aware of the presence of a sea in the form of gulfs up to Sicily and Bulgaria (Mediterranean Sea).  The Indian Ocean, he mentioned as being pricked by islands and felt that it met the oceans in the east and possibly below Africa in the west.  The Indian Ocean also had its links with the Red Sea and with the Persian Gulf. He referred to the seas of China and mentioned the fact that in the east the seas were named after the islands or the countries. Geographical Knowledge of Different Regions  The great geographer was also aware of the huge mountain range known in India as Himavant (the Himalayas) which spread across the length of the known world like a spinal column.  He also mentioned the Warangs and their predatory habits. There was mineral industry in North Europe. He referred to the Sawaras, Bulgars, Russians, Slavs and Azovs in the west and to the country of Frank and Galicia, situated beyond the Roman Empire at the western arm of Europe.  Regarding Africa, he was convinced that it lay and extended far into the south. He referred to the 'Mountain of Moon' situated near the equator which was the source of the Nile river. He analysed the causes of floods in the Nile and attributed them to the heavy rains in the upper reaches of the Nile.  Al-Biruni's knowledge of Asia was quite extensive and fairly accurate. In his opinion, the Great Central Mountain (the Himalayas) was the source of most of the perennial rivers of Asia.  He provided detailed information about the land of the Turks, identified in the Augarer river, and about the region of the Baikal Lake in Eastern Siberia.  He wrote extensively and accurately about the geography of India. His estimate of India's extent from the forts of lower Kashmir to the Deccan Peninsula is amazingly close to the real dimensions of the subcontinent.  He had a definite idea of its peninsular form. The mountains of Himavant and Pamir surrounded it in the north.  He said that the Eastern and Western Ghats controlled the distribution of rainfall in peninsular India. Rivers and Water Systems  He provided detailed information about the sources of rivers. However, excepting the Indus, his information about the other rivers is limited to the location of their sources.  He was the first person to provide correct information about the Indus, its origin, course and floods. His knowledge of the geography of Punjab and Afghanistan was based on his personal observations.  He also described the rivers of Beas, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej etc. The five tributaries of the Indus, according to him, meet the river at Pancanade (Panchanda) in Punjab near Multan. Description of India and Kashmir  Al-Biruni provided valuable information about North-Western India, particularly Kashmir.  For Gilgit, he said that it was two-day journey from Kashmir. About Kashmir, he said that it lay on a flat fertile plateau, surrounded by inaccessible mountains.  The southern and eastern parts of the country belonged to the Hindus, the west to the various Muslim kings, the north and eastern parts to the Turks of Khotan (Khatan) and Tibet. The best access to Kashmir was through the Jhelum gorge.  He acquired considerable knowledge of the terrain and people of the Indo-Gangetic plains. He gave an accurate account of the seasons of India.  He described the nature of the monsoon which brought rainfall to the greater parts of the subcontinent during the summer season. He explains how Kashmir and Punjab receive rainfall during the winter season. Study of Hindu Beliefs and Scriptures  Al-Biruni also discussed the origin of castes in Hindu society, idolatry and the Hindu scriptures. His study of Samkhya, the Gita, Patanjali, Vishnu Dharma and of some of the Puranas, coupled with his acquired knowledge of the Vedas, provided Al-Biruni with a unique opportunity to give the first objective description of Hindu beliefs. Al-Barum found a dualism in Hindu beliefs, i.e. the beliefs held by the educated (scholars) and the beliefs of the ignorant masses. Contribution to Various Fields  In brief, Al-Biruni excelled in philosophy, religion, cosmology, astronomy, geography, geodesy, stratography, geomorphology, mathematics science, medicine and several languages.  He also contributed appreciably in the field of chronology, computation of years and dates. At the same time, he had a clear concept of the ideal historian.  He was one of the most outstanding geographers of the medieval period. Al-Idrisi (1099-1165 AD) Biography  Al-Idrisi was one of the leading geographers of the 12th century. His name was Abu-Abd-Allah Muhammad.  He was a great Muslim geographer, cartographer, Egyptologist and traveller who lived in Sicily and died in Sicily.  Very little is known about the early life of Al-Idrisi except that he was born at Ceuta. Travels and Educational Background  From his writings, it appears that he visited Lisbon, Spain, France, England, Sicily, Morocco, Constantine, Asia Minor (Turkey) and the interior parts of Africa.  Al Idrisi got education at the University of Cardova in Spain. At the invitation of Roger II, the ruler of Sicily, he reached Palermo, where he lived for a long time and wrote a new geography.  In 1154 AD, he completed a book with the title Amusements for Him Who Desires to Travel Around the World. Major Works and Contribution  He corrected the wrong notion of an enclosed Indian Ocean as also the erroneous concept regarding the Caspian Sea which was earlier supposed to be an arm of the World Ocean.  He defined with precision the courses of many rivers including those of Danube and Niger.  The land of Gog and Magog of the Bible has been described by him as situated in the Siberia region.  Regarding the Southern Hemisphere, he holds the view that owing to intense heat it is not habitable.  Moreover, Al-Idrisi showed that the Greek division of the world into five climatic zones (two cold, two temperate and one torrid) did not correspond to reality, and had suggested a more sophisticated and refined world climatic system. Al-Idrisi’s World Map  The most important contribution of Al-Idrisi to geography was his world map. On the world map he plotted the various geographical features and for this purpose he utilized the Islamic and the Christian sources. His map was based on a rough, rectangular projection.  The Asiatic part of the map is very rich in information. It represents correctly the Caspian and Aral seas, which were misrepresented in the antiquity.  In the shape of Africa, we find the influence of Ptolemy, although Africa and China are not connected. The map is oriented with the south on top - a common feature of Islamic maps.  He gave an account of Europe in the first half of the 12th century that is unrivalled. He corrected the idea of an enclosed Indian Ocean and the idea of the Caspian Sea as a gulf of the World Ocean. Ibn-Battuta (1304-1368 AD) Early Life and Education  Abdallah Muhammad, having the surname Ibn-Battuta, was one of the great Arab travellers. He was born at the beginning of the 14th century in Tangier at the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea.  He was of Berber origin and was not an Arab. However, he had received instruction in Islam and its tenets.  He was from a family that produced a number of Muslim judges (Qars). He received the traditional education in his native town Tangier.  In search of education, he stayed at Egypt, Syria and Hejaz, and met there with leading scholars, Sufis and saints.  A number of diplomas and degrees were conferred on him, mainly in Damascus. Pilgrimage and Initial Travels  He left his homeland in 1325 AD, at the age of 21 to make the usual pilgrimage to Mecca.  After performing Haj, he visited successively Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Persia, Arabia, Somalia, Mogadishu, Zanzibar, Asia Minor (Turkey), Qupchaq land (steppes beyond the Caspian), Constantinople, Khwarizm, Bukhara, India, the Maldives, Ceylon, Sumatra and China.  His travels also took him to many parts of Arabia, Yemen, Aden, Sanaa, Taizz, Oman, Zalya, Mogadishu, Somalia, and never before visited, for example, Ethiopia.  He also navigated along the eastern coast of Africa as far as Kilwa - 10 degree south of the equator. Contributions and Discoveries  He showed that Aristotle had been wrong in believing that it was too hot here for human habitation, in what the Greeks had called the 'torrid zone'. b) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY In physical geography they have made significant contributions to climatology, geomorphology, oceanography and bio-geography. Each one of these are discussed below. i) Climatology:  The first climatic atlas is credited to Al-Balakhi who gathered climatic data and information from Arab travellers and prepared the first climatic atlas of the world— Kitab-ul-Ashkal (921).  One of them divided the world into 14 climatic regions. His name is Al-Maqdisi who also presented the idea that the southern hemisphere was mostly an open ocean and most of the world’s land area was in the northern hemisphere.  Ibn-Khaldun further opined that people residing in the warmer parts of the earth were more passionate.  He related the dark skin colour of the Negros with the location of their habitat in the warmer region.  Al-Masudi described Indian monsoons and even elaborated the factors like location, height above the sea level, setting of a place with accordance to mountains or sea and soil type all play a decisive role in the weather and climate of a particular area.  Al-Maqadisi divided world into different climatic regions using the temperature and rainfall indices. ii) Geomorphology:  Al-Beruni in his Kitab-ul-Hind opined that the stones became round because they had fallen along torrential mountain streams.  He also discovered that alluvial soils became finer in texture further away from mountains.  Ibn Sina keenly observed the works of agents of denudation and ascertained that mountain streams erode the slope; the highest peaks occur when the rocks are especially resistant to erosion; the mountains are immediately exposed to the process of wearing down as soon as they rise up.  Al-Maqadisi (945-1000 AD) in his book: "The Best Divisions for the Classification of Regions" divided Syria into four geomorphological zones running parallel to the Mediterranean Sea as follows: 1. A sand plain running close to the sea. 2. A mountainous area with vegetation cover and settlements 3. An area of lowlands and depressions with deep river valleys (part of the rift valley) having settlements. 4. An area of cold high mountains where Bedouins lived.  Al-Masoudi (895-957 AD) refers to the changing relationship between land and sea.  He even talks with reference to a 'geographical cycle' and categorically identifies three stages of rivers - youth, maturity and old-age.  He further establishes his point by stating that these three stages are similar to those found even in the lives of plants and animals. iii) Oceanography:  The most outstanding contribution in the field of oceanography was that the Arab scholars proved that the main reason for tides was the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon.  Al-Masudi noted that due to the presence of vegetation and salinity the colour of the ocean water varies from place to place. iv) Biogeography:  Abu Zeid Al-Ansary (732-825 AD), Abu Said Al-Asma'ai (740-828 AD), Ikhwan Al- Safa', and Al-Qazwini.  Al-Asma’ai are some of the noteworthy Arab scholars who contributed to the field of plant and animal geography.  Al-Qazwini even made an attempt to classify and distribute the natural vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. c) HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: The branch of Human geography interested Arab geographers, and they made contributions to almost all the sub-branches of human geography, that is, cultural, urban, medical, economic and so on. i) Cultural Geography  Ibn Khaldün divided the population of the world into two categories - nomadic and sedentary; and argued that nomadic life preceded sedentary life of human beings.  Scholars like Al-Maqadisi and Al-Istakhri wrote how physical characteristics of man especially their physique, colour of the skin, temperament, and costumes differs from region to region.  Al-Maqadisi along with Al-Hamadani even made reference of the fact that in Arabia people spoke different dialects.  Ibn Khaldün in his book relates that as the Arabs started travelling they blended with the non-Arab communities which resulted in the distortion of their language – Arabic.  Some scholars also studied the distribution of other languages in other regions especially Persia. ii) Urban Geography  In the field of urban geography these scholars diverted their attention to the studies of urban settlements.  They related the concepts of site and situation and even tried to classify towns and cities on the basis of their size.  Al-Khwarizmi in his book 'Surat Al-Ard' or 'Description of the Earth' (d. 850 AD) fixed the coordinates for nearly 539 towns.  In another monumental work, Al-Bakri (1040-1094 AD) came up with a geographic dictionary of place names where he notes down approximately 5200 sites.  These scholars also directed their attention on the morphology of urban settlements especially with regard to the internal structure of the towns.  Al-Maqadisi even identified a hierarchical order in his discussion on the settlement system; this was with respect to the size of the settlements.  He stated that very large urban centres or capital cities were like Kings while the regional centres were like ministers. iii) Economic Geography  Ibn Khaldün made an attempt of defining trade; he stated that it is the act of making profit by buying goods at low prices and selling them at higher prices.  Writings also covered famous marketing centres at the local, regional and international levels.  Writers gave accounts of the goods that entered into commercial transactions and the routes used for their delivery.  There was also reference to the currencies, and the measures and weights in use. iv) Medical Geography  Another branch in which the Arab and Muslim geographers of the Middle Ages made valuable contribution is the medical geography.  Large part of their writings is related to the study of diseases and their occurrence in various regions.  Many of them believed that there exists a positive relationship between disease and climate  Al-Maqadisi noted that the inhabitants of Baghdad had a low rate of life expectancy.  The contribution of these scholars in the pharmacological studies cannot be ignored, they wrote extensively on the extraction of medications from herbs and plants. 2.1 Beginning of Modern Geography – Varenius, Cluverius and Kant Varenius Intoduction to Varenius  Bernhard Varen, also known as Varenius, was born in a village near Hamburg, Germany.  He studied philosophy, mathematics, and physics at the University of Hamburg.  In 1640s, he became a private tutor in Amsterdam, which was a bustling trading center at the time.  Dutch traders were actively engaged in trade with regions like South-East Asia, Pacific Ocean Islands, and Japan. Books Published by Varenius  Varenius published a book titled “Description regni Laponiae et Siam”.  This book consists of five parts: (i) a description of Japan, (ii) a translation into Latin of a description of Siam (present-day Thailand), (iii) an essay on religions of Japan, (iv) African religions, and (v) a short essay on government-dealing with places and people.  In 1650, Varenius published his book "Geographia Generalis"  Varenius stated that his Geographia Generalis should be followed by the study of special geography. In this special description of particular places be based upon : 1. Celestial conditions (includes climates) 2. Terrestrial conditions (includes description of relief vegetation and animals) 3. Human condition (includes economic activity, settlement, govt. etc) Varenius Contribution to Geography  Two main Contributions  Varenius made two significant contributions to geography.  Firstly he brought together the contemporary theories of astronomy and cartography critically.  Secondly, dividing geography into general and special sections which led to the development of systematic and regional geography.  Distinguishing between General and Special Geography  He was the first geographer to distinguish between general/universal geography and special/particular geography.  German geographers changed the terms "general" and "special" geography with "systematic" and "regional" geography, respectively.  He believed that general geography focused on systematic geography, while regional geography dealt with specific features of countries and regions.  Varenius emphasized the interdependence between general and regional geography.  General geography focused on the physical conditions of the world, while regional geography provided detailed descriptions of individual countries and regions.  Varenius further divided general geography into the following parts: 1. Absolute terrestrial part, which describes the shape, size of the earth and the physical geography of continents, seas and atmosphere. 2. Relative or planetary part - concerned with earth's relation to other stars, especially the sun and its influence on world climate. 3. The comparative section, which discusses the location of different places in relation to each other and the principles of navigation.  Other Contributions  According to Varenius, geography examines various aspects such as surface features, climate, water bodies, forests, deserts, minerals, animals, and human inhabitants.  The cultural landscape, as described by Varenius, includes information about the inhabitants' appearance, arts, commerce, culture, language, religion, cities, and government. Agreement with Scientific Concepts  He agreed the concept of the universe proposed by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo.  Varenius also suggested that the highest temperatures are found along the tropics in hot deserts, contrary to the belief in equatorial regions.  These postulations opened new horizons of astronomy, for the first time extending astronomy beyond the solar system to galactic and extragalactic realms. Five Aspects of Geography According to Kant  Kant saw geography as a descriptive discipline and outlined five different aspects of geography: mathematical, moral, political, commercial, and theological geography. 1. The Mathematical Study of the Earth: This is an important aspect of geography inasmuch as it sees earth as a nearly spherical celestial body. It considers its size and shape and all imaginary circles that should be applied on its surface. 2. Moral Geography: It is also an important branch of geography which deals with the customs, traditions, rituals and character of man. Kant noted that 'in the mountains, men are actively and continuously bold, lovers of freedom and their homeland". 3. Political Geography: In political geography, the consequences of interrelationship between nature and man, the condition of the nations and the peoples on the earth is evaluated in two ways, which interpenetrate. It deals with more permanent features, such as the position and situation of countries, their products, trade, customs and population. Both ways in their inevitable relationship contribute to the whole picture. 4. Commercial Geography: This branch of geography, according to Kant, examines the reasons why certain countries have a superfluity of one commodity while others have a deficiency a condition that gives rise to international trade. 5. Theological Geography: It studies the changes theological problems undergo in different environments. Kant based the social branches of geography on their relations to physical geography. For example, one would make a comparison of Christianity in the Far East with that in Europe and the variation of Christian beliefs in different parts of Europe. Kant's Influence on the Development of Geography  He believed that geography provided valuable knowledge for private and public conversations, newspapers, and politicians.  He was the first who provided an early statement of geography as chorology.  Kant's contributions led to the branching of geography into physical and human geography.  His period, along with Varenius, is considered the "Classical Period of Modern Geographical Thought." 2.2 Contributions of Humboldt and Ritter After the Great Age of Discovery, two leading German scholars, viz, Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter made valuable contributions to the fields of basic sciences, humanities and arts. The foundation of geography as a modern science was primarily laid by German scholars during the period from 1750 to 1850 The second half of this period, the time of Humboldt and Ritter, is known as the 'classical period of geography'. These two scholars are regarded as the “founders of modern geography” although neither was trained as a geographer. Humboldt Alexander von Humboldt: A Versatile Scholar and Geographic Pioneer  Alexander von Humboldt led the way in the expansion of geography in and outside of Germany.  Humboldt was born in an aristocratic family in Prussia.  After getting education in classical languages, economics, finance, history, technology and mathematics, Humboldt started his career in the army, but his mother prevailed upon him to study economics and to compete in the civil service examination.  Later on he studied at Frankfurt in the University of Gottingen, where he studied botany, geology and mineralogy.  Humboldt also attended lectures in physics, chemistry and mining.  He was a scholar of great versatility, who contributed appreciably to the fields of geology, botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, history, climatology, geomorphology and to all other branches of geography. Extensive Travels and Observations  He travelled about 4,000 miles (6,667 km) and in all his travels, however short, he made multitudinous observations.  He performed all journeys with telescopes, sextants, cynometers (for measuring blueness of the sky), and barometers.  With the help of these instruments, he measured accurately the temperature of air and ground, pressure, winds, latitudes, longitudes, elevations above the sea level, magnetic vibrations, nature of rocks, types of plants and their relations to climate, latitude, altitude and human attitude. Explorations and Scientific Contributions  Visits to England (1790), Vienna (1772, 1797), Switzerland, and Italy (1795) for geological and botanical expeditions  Appointment as Director of Mines in Prussia (1792)  He studied the effect of different rocks on magnetic declination and published his first paper in 1793.  He became keenly interested in the rock structure of the Alps and visited Bavaria, Austria, Switzerland and Italy.  In Paris, he learned the art of handling various instruments of measurement sextant, barometers and aneroid barometers.  Established physical geography as a pioneer, particularly through exploration in Latin America. Adventures and Explorations (Latin American Expedition)  Exceptional Observations and Unsurpassed Fieldwork Skills  Humboldt possessed a unique gift for exceptionally sharp observation and in fieldwork he was unsurpassed, making him an unparalleled figure in the field of geography.  Humboldt's ability to make daily observations of temperatures and altitudes on his way to Madrid demonstrated his dedication to precise measurements.  He made the first accurate measurement of the elevation of the Spanish Meseta, showcasing his keen eye for detail and accuracy.  Latin American Expedition: Support, Discoveries, and Hardships  In 1798, Humboldt, accompanied by French botanist A. Bonpland, reached Madrid and received support from the King of Spain for their expedition to Latin America.  Sailing from Madrid, they arrived at Cumana Port in Venezuela, marking the beginning of their significant discoveries.  Along the sea coast, their exploration led them to Caracas, where they encountered the Valencia Lake and observed its shrinkage due to deforestation.  Humboldt established a positive relationship between forests and rainfall, a concept that still holds significant importance today.  Exploring the Orinoco River, Andes, Ecuador and Peru  Humboldt's expedition in 1800 focused on exploring the Orinoco River and its tributaries, confirming its connection with the Amazon.  During the venture, Alexander and his colleagues suffered many hardships. They had only banana, wild fruits and fish to eat, and were exposed to the bites of clouds of mosquitoes, ants, equatorial insects, man- eating fish and crocodiles.  He conducted precise measurements, establishing exact latitudes and longitudes of various locations and collecting thousands of plant and rock specimens.  Returning to Cumana (Cuba) in November 1800, Humboldt studied the economy and society of the local population, expanding his understanding of the region.  In 1801, Humboldt and Bonpland arrived at Cartagena (Colombia) and embarked on a journey to the Andes, Ecuador, and Peru.  Humboldt provided a scientific explanation of crop growth, considering the influence of altitude, temperature, and vegetation.  His description of the vertical zones of the Northern Andes became a fundamental reference in the field of geography.  Humboldt explored numerous volcanoes in Ecuador, venturing into active craters to collect gases and further his understanding of volcanic activity.  Climbing the impressive Chimborazo Peak, he set a world record and observed the effects of altitude on the human body, explaining the sensation of dizziness caused by low air pressure.  He also visited Bogota, Quito, Lima and Callo in the Andes Mountains  Notable observations included the valuable guano bird droppings along the coast of Peru  The recording of the cold water current, subsequently named the Humboldt Current, with measurements of temperature and velocity.  Mexico Exploration and Return to Europe  In March 1803, the expedition concluded with travels in different parts of Mexico, where Humboldt studied the impact of landforms on the cultural landscape.  Humboldt's remarkable journey ended with a brief stay in Philadelphia and Washington D.C. before returning to Europe in 1804, leaving behind a lasting legacy in the field of geography. Humboldt's Contributions to Geographical Exploration and Literature  Humboldt's adventurous nature led him to travel to Vesuvius Volcano in Italy in 1806, an experience he documented in 30 volumes written in French.  His writings, later translated into numerous languages, inspired young scientists to explore uncharted areas of the world.  Humboldt's explanations regarding the prosperity of Mexican residents due to effective land resource utilization garnered attention.  He proposed the idea of digging a canal across the Isthmus, showcasing his visionary thinking.  Humboldt's work, published in 1845 under the title "Kosmos," gained global acceptance and was translated into many languages. Humboldt's Impact on Climatology and Siberian Exploration  In 1829, Humboldt was invited by the Russian Czar to the city of St. Petersburg and was tasked with finding the virgin land of Siberia across the Ural Mountains.  During the Siberian campaign, Humboldt maintained regular records of temperature and pressure, revealing the inward temperatures on the same latitude, away from the coast.  Based on his observations, he advocated for the establishment of multiple weather stations by the Czar throughout Russia.  Humboldt introduced the concept of "continentality" to explain climatic variations.  He coined the term "permafrost" to describe the frozen characteristics of Siberian soil.  After the undertaking that the term 'climatology' appeared in geographical literature, it is related to all variations of atmosphere, temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, winds, atmospheric purity and degree of visibility. Humboldt's Comprehensive Work in "Kosmos" and Cosmography  Kosmos is a comprehensive account of Humboldt's journey and expeditions; the first volume was published in 1845 and the fifth volume was published in 1862 after his death.  In the first volume a general picture of the whole universe is presented.  The second volume delves into the portrayal of nature throughout history of ancient Egyptians, drawing from the works of landscape painters and poets.  Humboldt explores the laws of celestial space in the third volume.  Erdkunde is a comprehensive German word which stands for science of the earth in relation to nature and history.  Ritter believes that the earth and its inhabitants have a close and interconnected relationship, and it is impossible to fully understand one without considering the other.  According to Ritter, history and geography are inseparable, as both land and its inhabitants mutually influence one another.  In Europe, for example things were different depending on where you looked.  In the eastern part, like Russia, the geography and history were pretty similar. But in the western part, there was a lot of diversity in both the environment and the history and in the southern part, which includes places like Egypt, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Gaul, and Iberia, the history was especially rich with many different cultures and accomplishments.  The first two volumes of the Erdkunde were intended to be followed by a study of history.  Between 1817 and 1859, he completed 19 volumes of Erdkunde but these volumes cover only Africa and parts of Asia. In spite of the fact that he lived long, he was not able to finish his work of Europe.  Through his writings, Ritter tried to prove that the earth is made for man: ‘As body is made for soul, so is the physical globe made for mankind’. The major geographical concepts of Ritter may be summed up as follows: 1. Ritter saw geography as a science based on real observations and evidence, not just theories or assumptions. 2. He believed that different geographical features are connected and create unique areas with their own characteristics. 3. Boundary lines, like rivers or mountains, help us understand the purpose of geography by defining the content and boundaries of specific areas. 4. Ritter studied areas as a whole, considering all the elements and objects within them. 5. He took a holistic approach to geography, focusing on the study of the entire interconnectedness of nature and its relationship to humans. 6. He believed that the earth was an organism made, even in its smallest details, with divine intent, to fit the needs of man to perfection. He was a teleologist in his approach. 2.3 Development of Geography in Europe during the second half of the 19th Century and first half of the 20th Century Evolution of Geography's Nature and Scope  There had been changing thrust in the nature of geography throughout its history.  Since the term ‘geography’ means, and has meant, different things to different people in different times and places, there is no agreed upon consensus on what constitutes the nature and scope of geography. Classical Period of Modern Geography: Humboldt and Ritter  Prior to the period of Varenius and Kant, geography was geo+graphy, largely descriptive in character.  Varenius divided geography into general (systematic/universal) and particular (special or regional) geography.  The period of these scholars is often been called as the classical period of modern geography.  Humboldt and Ritter are credited as the founders of modern geography.  Humboldt, who had an exceptional quality of sharp observation and travelled extensively in Europe, Asia and Americas, considered geography as a systematic discipline and also tried to develop universal laws and theories in the field of physical geography.  On his return from the expedition of South America, he established the science of physical geography.  Though Humboldt, who held no university post, had no immediate followers in academic ranks, his influence outside of Germany was vastly greater than that of Ritter.  Ritter, a teleologist, produced a galaxy of geographers who emphasized the ‘historical’ aspect and drifted from the systematic to the regional geography and the primary concern with man. Followers of Ritter and their Contributions  Ernst Kapp, a prominent student of Ritter, developed special interest in political problems.  Another follower of Ritter, Arnold Guyot, who held the first chair of geography in the United States at Princeton, was also a teleologist who described and interpreted the regional patterns on the lines of Ritter with a focus on regional geography.  The most successful student of Ritter was the French geographer Elisee Reclus, who derived his main principles and ideas about geography from Erdkunde.  In the beginning Elisee focused on systematic geography and then attempted a complete regional survey of the world.  Elisee Reclus travelled extensively in North and South Americas to observe the landscapes.  Reclus was well recognized for his 19 volumes on regional geography—Nouvelle Geography Universal (1875-94).  His works give a historical account of humanity’s life on earth and its resources.  It was because of his contribution to regional geography that Schmidt declared Reclus as the “Ritter of France”.  Some of Ritter’s students like Moltkeserved, who served at the military college, discussed the importance of geography in military science.  The foundation, which Humboldt and Ritter had established for geography, did not provide a clearly unified field.  The followers of these scholars split the subject of geography in several directions and its position as a branch of knowledge thereby brought into serious question. Challenges to Geography's Unity and Methodology  With the rise in academic status of geography and the productive work of this period, the major problem of geographers was to overcome the apparent disunity in the methodology of the field and also establish its position as a single field of science to incorporate the physical and cultural features.  With the death of Humboldt and Ritter in 1859, and the publication of Darwin’s classic work on the Origin of Species, the general scientific work was against their approaches to geography. It was at this time when Bucher attacked on the demarcation of natural boundaries and natural regions.  The teleological approach of Ritter was rejected.  The German geographers of that period were influenced by the approach of environmental determinism.  Ratzel, in his book, Anthropogeographie highlighted the point that the history, culture and gamut of life are largely influenced by the physical environmental forces.  He went to the extent of saying that “similar locations lead to similar mode of life”.  It was the impact of Darwin that the study of landforms (geomorphology) became as the main domain of geographic investigation. It may be said as the period (‘geologification’) of geography.  William Morris Davis developed the concept ‘geographic cycle’ (cycle of erosion). He developed an analogy between organic life and evolution of landforms. He advocated that the “landforms evolve like the evolution of organic life”. Possibilism and the Active Role of Man in Environment  Miss Semple, one of the leading students of Ratzel, who was also influenced by environmental determinism declared in her book “Influences of Geographic Environment” that “man is the product of the earth surface”.  As a reaction to extreme generalization of environmental determinists, there developed the school of possibilism. The possibilists took man as an active agent in environment.  They opined that physical environment provides options, the number of which increases as the knowledge and technology of a cultural group develops.  Febvre declared that “there are no necessities but everywhere possibilities”. It was at this time when Vidal de Lablache developed the concept of genres de vie (lifestyles). Emphasis on Landforms and Physical Geography  Subsequently, the shift in geographic work is generally regarded by German geographers primarily due to the work of Peschel and Richthofen.  Paschel led geographers to study primarily the morphology of landforms. In his study, he also attempted to study the influence of landforms on human history.  Richthofen, in his studies of China, published in 1877, also focused on the study of landforms.  Penck, a trained geologist, emphasized on the importance of the study of landforms and declared it as the major concern of geographers.  The dichotomy of physical geography versus human geography was also a development of the second half of the 19th century. While Wegener declared geography as a pure natural science, the followers of French school of possibilism announced human geography as the thrust area of geography. 2.4 Darwin’s impact on Geography Darwin was a naturalist. He is renowned for his theory of evolution and for a theory of its operation, known as Darwinism. His evolutionary theories are propounded chiefly in two works: (i) Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and (ii) Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). His theories greatly influenced the scientific and religious debates of his time. Impact of Darwin on the Development of Geographical Concepts  Charles Darwin propounded the theory of evolution which revolutionized the biological, environmental and earth sciences.  His theory of evolution involved commitment to common organic descent, gradualism and multiplication of species. He also spoke of natural selection, family selection, correlative variation, use inheritance and directed variation.  Darwin argued that a struggle for existence must take place; it followed that those who survived were better adapted to their environments than competitors.  This was essentially a theory of reproductive success in which relatively superior adaptations increase while relatively inferior ones are steadily eliminated. A similar theory was simultaneously put forward by Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) who surveyed the islands of South-East Asia.  Stoddart (1966) suggests that the following four main themes from Darwin's work can be traced in later geographical research: (i) Change through time or evolution - a general concept of gradual or even transition from lower to higher or more complicated forms. Darwin used the terms 'evolution' and 'development' essentially in the same sense. (ii) Association and organization - humanity as part of a living ecological organism. (iii)Struggle and natural selection. (iv) The randomness or chance character of variation in nature.  Darwin, who rejected the teleological approach of Ritter and the theological concept in vogue about the origin of man and other species influenced significantly the growth and development of the concepts of geography both in the physical and human geography.  Some of the significant influences of Darwin's theory on the development of geographical concepts, methodology and approaches have been concisely presented in the following paras: 1. Geographical Exploration  Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle, during which he visited numerous locations around the world, provided valuable geographic data and inspired further exploration.  Darwin's exploration of South America, particularly areas like the Galapagos Islands, Chile, and Argentina, provided him with invaluable observations and insights into the natural world.  He documented diverse species, geological formations, and ecological patterns, which later contributed to his theory of evolution.  His observations and collections of specimens contributed to the understanding of geographic features, such as coastlines, mountains, and geological formations.  His work also motivated other scientists and explorers to conduct geographical expeditions, expanding the knowledge of the Earth's physical geography. 2. Impact on Geomorphology  Darwin's theory influenced the thinking of physical geographers.  In fact, it was after Darwin's work that apart from biology, geology and geomorphology became the most ambitious branches of natural sciences.  Geology was important because it could with the aid of paleontology (which interprets fossils) clarify the evolution of plant and animal species.  Influenced by Darwin's theory, Oscar Peschel, the author of the book New Problems of Comparative Geography as a Search for Morphology of the Earth's Surface (1870), suggested that geographers should study the shape of the earth's surface.  Like Ritter he was interested in the significance of landforms for the development of human beings, but he did not share Ritter's religious outlook being more concerned with cause and effects as illustrated by the methods of natural sciences.  It was after Darwin's theory that the geologists and paleontologists concentrated on the development of geological timescale, the systematic mapping of rock types and the analysis of fossils. 3.2 Growth and Development of Dualism between Physical and Human Geography, Systematic and Regional Geography Physical vs human geography The dualism between physical and human geography refers to the historical division of geography into two main branches: physical geography and human geography. This division emerged as the field of geography developed over time, and it reflects the distinction between the study of the natural environment and the study of human societies and their interactions with that environment. Historical Origins of Physical vs Human Geography  As regards dichotomy of physical geography versus human geography, the Greeks were probably the first who started this branching of the discipline.  Hecatacus gave more weight to physical geography, while Herodotus and Strabo emphasized the human aspect.  Dualism of physical versus human geography is still a characteristic of the discipline. Some writers have regarded it as essential for the justification of the role of geography, while others have argued for it as also for a division of the subject into physical and human geography on the ground. Different Methodologies and Disciplinary Justifications  In studies of natural phenomena, including climatology, meteorology, hydrology, oceanography, geology and landforms, it is possible to use the methods of natural sciences and to draw conclusions with a large measure of scientific precision.  The methods of natural science, however, do not lend themselves very well to the study of social and cultural phenomena. Evolution of Emphasis: Physical and Human Geography  Verenius, whose Geographia Generalis published in 1650, was one of the first scholars to suggest these essential differences in the characteristics of physical and human geography.  At the beginning of the 18th century, Immanuel Kant delivered lectures on physical geography at the University of Konigsburg (Germany). He studied the deflection of wind direction resulting from earth's rotation.  Humboldt, who is considered as the last of the great polymaths, was primarily interested in physical geography.  On the other hand, Carl Ritter, the first professor of geography at the Berlin University, was more inclined towards human geography.  Humboldt and Ritter believed that the ultimate aim of research in physical geography was to clarify the unity of nature.  Reclus laid emphasis on systematic physical geography called La Terre.  After Reclus, Darwin gave importance to physical aspect of the discipline while postulating the concepts of struggle and survival. Rise of Geomorphology and Climate in Geography  In the second half of the 19th century, geographers concerned themselves more and more with physical geography.  They established geomorphology, the study of landforms, which later became the most substantial element in physical geography. The term 'geomorphology' was coined by Albrecht Penck-the German geographer - who was a geologist by training.  After doing extensive fieldwork he formulated the principles of 'landforms evolution' and showed how the systematic study of features can be approached from the chorological (regional) point of view.  He stressed the importance of relief maps for a systematic study of geography.  Later on, Koppen, Davis, Martonne, Mill, Jafferson and Dokuchaive put great emphasis on landforms and climate as the major concerns of geography.  In all these studies, man (the most important component of ecosystem) was ignored.  It was during this period that Davis put forward the idea of the normal cycle of erosion.  Ratzel and Semple also gave greater importance to physical environment which determines the lifestyle of people. Emergence of Physical Geography as the Main Field  Semple asserted that 'man is the product of earth surface'.  Huntington, while writing about the march of civilizations, has opined that the shift in their centers was due to the climate and weather conditions.  Mackinder, Chisholm and Herbertson also recognized physical geography as the main field of geographers.  The Soviet scientists also conceived geography as the branch of science which deals with geomorphology, pedology, hydrology and meteorology.  This major emphasis on physical geography may be attributed to the fact that at the initial stage of development, geography was taught by teachers who had geology background. Historical Development of Human Geography  The real dichotomy of physical versus human geography cannot be understood unless some light is thrown on the historical development of human geography.  Ritter and Ratzel were among the first who considered man as an agent who brings change in the landscape.  Febvre placed emphasis on the fact that human beings are an element of the 'landscape - an element whose activity is incorporated in it, a modifying agent of the environment which 'humanizes' it. He also argued that the same physical factors do not always produce the same effects.  It was Vidal de la Blache who founded the school of human geography. He gave relatively less importance to the elements of physical environment as the major determinants of cultural landscape of a region.  Vidal de la Blache had a clear insight into the weakness of physical geography and the deterministic argument.  According to Vidal de la Blache, it is unreasonable to draw boundaries between natural and cultural phenomena; they should be regarded as united and inseparable.  In an area of human settlement, nature changes significantly because of the presence of man, and these changes are the greatest where the level of material culture of a community is the highest."  Jean Brunhes prepared himself for the conceptual framework of human geography. He developed the principles of activity and interconnection. Mutual Relationship between Man and Nature  The basic philosophy of the followers of human geography was to establish a man-nature mutual relationship in which each of the two is dependent on the other.  All geographical studies are aimed at developing an understanding of the earth surface and its physical and social phenomena both as spatially varying entities unique in their own way as well as components in a mutually interacting system. Methodological Differences  The methodology adopted to promote such an understanding differs from field to field and is essentially designed to suit the requirements of the content intended to be studied and the underlying objectives involved therein.  The difference in methods employed in different branches of geography may be so vast as to make the very unity of field rather doubtful.  For instance, 'the difference in methods between studies of climate and of landforms is in many respects greater than the difference between the study of natural vegetation and of cultivation of crops. Reevaluation of the Dichotomy  It is evident from the above discussion that the dichotomy of physical geography versus human geography is artificial and illogical.  This dualism is the result of historical development of the discipline.  In brief, geography not fall into two groups, i.e., physical and human; these two are just the two extremes of a continuum.  Hartshorne argues that if we divide geography in physical and human phenomena, we make the rest of the work illogical.  Thus, we study the effect of physical factors on man and man's activities on land and not the physiological factor.  Therefore, the division into physical and human is the cause of geography being only a partial study.  For geography, to be any value, the rift between physical and human phenomena must disappear. Systematic vs Regional geography Historical Background of Systematic and Regional Geography  Varenius and the Division of Geography  The issue of general geography versus regional geography was most probably raised by Varenius, in the 17th century. This period is often termed as the classical period of the modern geographical thought.  Varenius recognized the two main divisions of geography - general or universal and special or particular. This branching of the subject is known as general geography versus particular (special) geography.  Systematic Geography & Regional Geography  Systematic geography deals with one or a few aspects of the human environment or the human population and studies their varying performance in the world or over a predefined geographical space.  General geography, as viewed by Varenius, was concerned with the formulation of general laws, principles and generic concepts. It was believed to be the noblest of ends of scientific enquiry in the initial development of geography.  Gradually, all studies of a generalistic nature acquired the status of systematic geography, while the special or particular studies were described as regional geography.  Systematic geography drew inspiration from the existing systematic sciences with a search for the universal and generic concepts.  Regional geography, on the other hand, has not moved out of the ambit of particular studies.  Regional geography in the traditional sense seeks to bring together in an areal setting various matters which are treated separately in topical (systematic) geography.  Regional geography is the study of the geography of regions. Views of Prominent Geographers  Richard Hartshorne who was a prominent American geographer declared in his book Nature of Geography (1939), that the essence of geography is regional geography. In the 1950s Hartshorne was part of a key geographical debate over the nature of geography.  After Varenius, the leading German scholar - Alexander von Humboldt spelt out the difference between systematic and regional geography. Humboldt divided the subject matter of geography into uranography and geography. Uranography, according to him, is the descriptive astronomy, while geography deals with the interrelationship of phenomena that exist together in an area. He believed in inductive method and emphasized the importance of empirical method of research. He made comparative study of different geographical regions, steppe grasslands (Russia) and the arid regions (Central Asia) to ascertain the peculiarities of the various parts of the earth's surface. Thus, Humboldt also recognized the dualism of systematic versus regional geography.  Carl Ritter a contemporary of Humboldt was a teleologist. He stressed the need for a study of natural phenomena 'as a whole, as in parts' in order to comprehend the 'inherent plan'. He conceived geography as an empirical science rather than one based on deduction from rational principles or a priori theory. In brief, according to Ritter, geography was concerned with objects on the earth as they exist together in an area. He studied areas synthetically, i.e. in their totality. He believed in the centrality of regional geography. In brief, he studied the workings of nature in order to understand the purpose behind its order. He did not regard the shape of continents as accidental but rather as determined by God so that their form and location enabled them to play the role designed by God in the development of man. Ritter combined a basic teleological standpoint with a most critical scientific precision  After Carl Ritter, Ferdinand von Richthofen defined geography. In his opinion, the purpose of geography was to focus attention on the diverse phenomena that occur in interrelationship on the surface of the earth. The methodology he suggested for the study of geography was that the elements of physical setting of a region be discussed and then the adjustment of man in that setting be examined. For a substantial period, it remained the basic pattern of geographical studies not only in Germany but also in other parts of the world. Richthofen also emphasized the point that regional geography must be descriptive to highlight the salient features of a region. General geography, he felt, deals with the spatial distribution of individual phenomenon in the world.  Geography after Humboldt, Ritter and Richthofen in Europe and America was dominated by Friedrich Ratzel. Ratzel largely used the deductive method and compared the lifestyles of different tribes and nations. In his anthropological studies, he liked to proceed with a priori hypothesis and laws and applied them to specific cases. He was obsessed by the concept of genesis of things rather than their interdependence. He applied Darwin's concept to human societies. This analogy suggested that groups of human beings must struggle to survive in particular environments as much as plant and animal organisms do. This marked a departure from the integrative morphological approach of Humboldt. 3.3 Determinism and Possibilism Determinism  In the history of geographical concepts, there have been various approaches and schools of thought of study man-nature interaction.  The first approach adopted by the geographers to generalize the patterns of human occupations of the earth surface was deterministic. Their major initial source for explanations was the physical environment, and that theoretical position was established around the belief that the nature of human activity was controlled by the parameters of the physical world within which it was set.  Determinism refers to the idea that everything in human life is caused inevitably by natural environments. It is also known as environmentalism.  The essence of the deterministic school of thought is that the history, culture, living style and stage of development of a social group or nation are exclusively or largely governed by the physical factors of environment.  It is a philosophical concept that stresses the influence of environment on man and his activities and treats man subordinate to environment.  Philosophy of Determinism is based upon the interaction between primitive human society and strong forces of nature.  This is an older philosophy which persisted till World War II.  It says that the strong forces of environment control the course of human action. This implies that the history, culture, mode of life, and the level of development of the societal groups and countries are exclusively or largely controlled by the physical environment.  According to Determinism, man is a passive agent, and nature is active agent, which controls and determines the action and decision-making processes of man. As per determinism, the human actions can be explained as a response to the natural environment.  Climate change is also environmental control over human activities, and due to climate change, changes are now visible in the way people develop.  The difference in human behaviors can be explained by the difference in natural environments. Examples:  People eat rice in hilly areas as they need more energy to climb hills and rice is easily available in the hilly region.  Plain area peoples eat wheat as they need low energy & wheat can be easily grown in the plains region.  Tribal people worship plants, animals, rivers, etc, as their livelihood is dependent on the forest.  The tradition of determinism can be traced back to ancient classical period when the Greek and Roman geographers like Hippocrates, Aristotle and Strabo.  Aristotle, for example, explained the differences between Northern Europeans and Asians in terms of climatic causes. He argued that the colder climates of Europe produced brave but unintelligent people who were able to maintain their independence but who did not have the capacity to rule others. Aristotle thought that the people inhabiting the warm climates of Asia were intelligent but lacking in spirit and therefore subject to slavery.  Strabo—the Roman geographer—attempted to explain how slope, relief, climate all were the works of God, and how these phenomena govern the lifestyles of people. Montesquieu pointed out that the people in cold climates are stronger physically, more courageous, frank, less suspicious and less cunning than those in the warm climates. The people of warm climates are timorous, weak in body, indolent and passive.  Geographical determinism continued to dominate the writings of the Arab geographers. They divided the habitable world into seven kishwars or terrestrial zones (climate) and highlighted the physical and cultural characteristics of races and nations of these zones. Al-Battani, Al-Masudi, Ibn-Hauqal, Al-Idrisi, and Ibn-Khaldun attempted to correlate environment with human activities and mode of life. Al-Masudi, for example, asserted that in the land like Sham (Syria) where water is abundant, the people are humorous, while the people of dry and arid lands are short-tempered.  Kant was also a determinist; he further stressed the point that all the inhabitants of hot lands are exceptionally lazy and timid. Timidity engenders superstition and in lands ruled by kings it leads to slavery.  Carl Ritter- the leading German geographer - adopted an anthropocentric approach and introduced geographical determinism in the early 19th century. Ritter attempted to establish the cause variations in the physical constitution of body, physique and health of men living in different physical environmental conditions. He stated that the narrow eyelids of Turkoman people were an obvious effect of the desert upon the human organism.  Alexander von Humboldt, one of the founders of 'modern geography' and a contemporary of Ritter also asserted that the mode of life of the inhabitants of a mountainous country differs from that of the people of the plains.  The founder of this determinism was Friedrich Ratzel. He supplemented ‘classical’ geographical determinism with elements of ‘Social Darwinism’ and developed a theory of the state as an organism which owed its life to the earth and which was ever striving to seize more and more territory. In the opinion of Ratzel, “similar locations lead to similar mode of life”. He cited the example of British Isles and Japan and asserted that both these countries have insular locations, which provide natural defense against the invaders.  Ratzel—a follower of Darwin—believed in the survival of the fittest and saw ‘man’ as the end-product of evolution—an evolution in which the mainspring was the natural selection of types according to their capacity to adjust themselves to physical environment. In his deterministic approach, he gave more weight to location in relation to topographic features.  Criticism of Determinism in geography:  Spate Criticized determinism though he pointed out that environments themselves are meaningless without a man. The human also shapes the environment.  In deterministic, man is regarded as a passive element, this is not true. A man by his efforts can create his own environment. For example, nowadays paddy crops are also growing in drought areas by providing irrigation facilities.  Ratzel said that two ethnic groups in the same location may have different living standards.  The same environment has a different meaning for different people based on family background, culture, knowledge, etc.  People living in mountain passes are robbers, it is an overgeneralization statement of determinism. It is not true. Conclusion In accordance with this theory man is a slave of his environment. It holds the view that man's actions are stimulated and governed by some outside agency like the environment. Its chief features are: 1. All actions of man are determined by his environment. 2. Environment shapes human society. All things like food, shelter, dress, houses, settlement patterns etc. are determined by environment. So much so that man's thinking process is a gift of his environment, 3. Everywhere in the world tribals are completely controlled by environment. Just sometime back the Bushmen of Kalahari, the Pygmies of Congo and the Beduins of Arabis were completely dependent on their environment. On account of growth of science and technology this theory does not now find much favom. Some of the prominent advocates of Determinist school are Ratzel. E. C. Sample, E Hutingson and J. Taylor Possibilism  The concept of Possibilism came about as a reaction to environmental determinism. In environmental determinism, human beings are treated as a passive element. But the concept of Possibilism believed that man was always an active agent in the environment.  It is based upon the assumption that environment sets certain constraints or limitations, but culture is otherwise determined by social conditions. This theory says that the true and only geographical problem is that to utilisation of possibilities.  With the advancement of knowledge, science, and technology in human society, they change the environment according to their own accord. Agriculture is an example of this. Human activity is not controlled by only environmental factors.  The theory of possibilism states that the world is full of possibilities, it is up to humans how they use them.  Examples, 1. Israel lacks basic natural resources such as water. They innovated drip irrigation systems and vertical farming to overcome the food shortage in the country. Israel's agricultural techniques for farming today are world-class, they are far ahead in terms of agricultural productivity and they are now exporting many agricultural products. 2. In India, we are cultivating rice through canal irrigation in Rajasthan which is a desert. 3. Man through his technical skill can grow banana, rice and rubber plants in tundra, Greenland, and Antarctica, but he has to take into consideration the input cost. The prohibitive cost of production of these crops in the extremely cold conditions of these areas will compel man not to grow them in the tundra climate.  Possibilism is a concept that views physical environment provides opportunity for a range of possible human responses and that people have a considerable discretion to choose between them. Possibilism was a reaction of german determinism in 20th century in France.  The French geographer, Paul Vidal de la Blache was the founder of French human geography. He was the first to propound possibilism in geography. Blache developed the ‘School of Possibilism’.  As per Vidal la Blache,  The environment sets some limits but does not completely control human culture.  The lifestyle of people defines the culture and Lifestyle is the product of civilization.  Variations in foods, habits, culture, etc are also found in a similar environment. If the environment dictates completely, then these variations can not exist.  The environment is not a dictator, it is just an advisor. Example:  Under hydroponics technology, humans can grow vegetables without using soil.  Tea, coffee, and rubber can be cultivated in the tundra under artificial environmental conditions created by humans.  Here the environment is restraining us in one way and allowing us to do the same in another way.  Environment limits some possibilities but gives other possibilities.  The environment prevents rice cultivation in the rain-fed area but gives other possibilities that are the cultivation of Bajara, barley, etc  French geographer, Mr. Lucien Febvre [1878 to 1956] opposed the concept of determinism, and give his own concept of possibilism theory in geography.  Febvre 's possibilism concept:  The world is full of possibilities.  Nature provides many possibilities, and possibilities can be increased through knowledge, innovation, and technological advancement  Man is not a passive element, man is the active agent. Man can create, alter, and destroy the environment.  Man is the not product of the environment, man is the product of culture and the environment.  After Vidal de la Blache, possibilism continued to grow and spread on both sides of the Atlantic. In France, Jean Brunhes was a strong supporter of possibilism. Brunhes enunciated the first explicit formulation of human geography as a systematic approach to the study of human geography.  Outside France, the possibilist ideas were accepted by a large number of geographers and anthropologists.  Barrows-the prominent ecologist-gave greater importance to man than to environment.  A more acceptable view of possibilium was presented by Sauer. He asserted that a geographer's role is to investigate and understand the nature of the transition from the natural to the cultural landscape.  From such an exercise the geographer would identify the major changes that had occurred in an area as a result of occupancy by succession of human groups. Its importance is often greater in regions where it has been acclimatized than in those where it originated and domesticated.  For example, wheat does not have the largest yields in regions where it was first domesticated (South-West Asia). Cultivation of rice is now done largely in USA, Canada, Australia, Pakistan and India - places where it was taken up later.  Criticism of Possibilism: The possibilistic approach has been criticised by many contemporary thinkers. Griffith Taylor while criticising possibilism, opined that society as a whole should make a choice, and since only an advisory role is assigned to geographer.  Possibilism has overemphasized the role of culture and civilization. The role of the environment is neglected, and it may lead to environmental loss.  Despite numerous possibilities, man, has not been able to get rid of the obstacles set by the physical forces. The possibilities may be many in the temperate regions but they are very limited in the deserts, equatorial, tundra, and high mountainous regions.  Possibilism can create environmental problems if we act against nature. Examples,  We are facing climate change problems due to pollution and Greenhouse gas emissions.  Facing the problem of landslides, earthquakes, etc due to dam building in a hazardous-prone area.  Facing floods due to silting of the river from mining and deforestation.  Facing dengue outrage in part of Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana due to waterlogging around the canal.  Geography is, therefore, exclusively human geography, or as Barrow stated, geography is ‘human ecology’.  Geography is a natural science in the same way as plant ecology is a biological science. Sauer’s Cultural Patterns  Sauer, in his book Agricultural Origins and Dispersals (1952), focused upon the patterns of human culture in relation to the natural environment.  He also tried to explain how human interactions with physical environment have resulted into various cultural patterns in the different parts of the world.  While examining the lifestyle and history of the people in the different regions of the world, it may be said that there is a close relationship between the environment and the mode of life of the people. Complexity of Human-Environment Interaction  Undoubtedly, terrain, topography, temperature, rainfall, natural vegetation and soils have a direct bearing on the culture, economy and society of the people, yet the role of man as the transforming agent of his physical surroundings cannot be ignored.  In fact, works of man reveal many facts for which environmental forces alone can give no satisfactory explanation.  For example, similar locations may not lead to similar mode of life.  The Eskimos of Tundra region differ markedly in their economic activities and cultural practices from the Tungus, Yakuts and Yukaghirs, etc.  The Khasis and Nepalis, living in Meghalaya (India) in the same physical environmental conditions, have the different cultural ethos.  Same is the case with the Gujjars and Bakkarwals of Kashmir Valley and the Kashmiris in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Likewise, the Hanjis (water dwellers) of Dal Lake and Jhelum River in Srinagar have different attitude and mode of life from the inhabitants of Srinagar city. Critiques and Decline  Geography, as the discipline of relationship, though was quite prominent approach; it lost its position after the Second World War.  The advocates of spatial science, locational analysis, behaviouralists, radicalists and humanists criticized this approach and declared it just deterministic and unscientific. Environmental Determinism  Environmental determinism is an approach in geography that explains the relationship between humans and the environment.  The origin of environmental determinism lies in the work of Charles Darwin, whose seminal book Origin of Species (1859) influenced many scientists.  The belief that variations in human behaviour around the world can be explained by differences in the natural environment is known as environmental determinism.  As per Environmental Determinism,  The surrounding environment is the main deciding factor in human behavior, and differences in human behavior stem from differences in its environment.  Surrounding physical factors like climate, relief, landforms, etc. determine the patterns of human culture, cultural development, social development, and human settlement.  At the beginning of the 20th century ‘environmentalism’ became particularly widespread in the United States, where its leading proponents were W.M. Davis (in his cycle of erosion model of landform development), Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington.  Semple was the direct descendant of Ratzel. She preached the philosophy of her master and thus was a staunch supporter of determinism.  American geographer, Ms. Ellen Churchill Semple in her book "Influences of Geographical Environment" mentioned environmental Determinism.  Ms. Ellen Churchill Semple's views on environmental determinism  Man is the product of the environment.  The habitat types of humans are determined by the prevailing environmental conditions around them. For example, slanted roofs are preferred in their homes by people living in areas with heavy rainfall and snowfall. Similarly, people living in flood-affected areas prefer to build houses in high-altitude areas.  Human activities and habits are determined by the environment.  The people of plain parts of Europe are energetic, serious, thoughtful rather than emotional and cautious rather than impulsive.  People who live in Mediterranean regions are enthusiastic, happy, imaginative and simple.  The people who live in the mountains are: brave and courageous, simple and honest. But they are conservative and being conservative, they do not innovate. Generally, the people living in the mountain passes are robbers.  People of the plain area: Liberals are innovative, progressive, and quick to adopt new ideas. Clever and they fool others but cowards.  Another American Geographer, Huntington mentioned Environmental Determinism in his book " The Principles of Human Geography".  Huntington's Views on environmental determinism  The basic philosophy of Huntington was that the supreme achievements of civilization in any region were always bound up with a particular type of climate and variation in climate led to ‘pulsations’ in the history of culture.  Human Behavior is decided by the climate of a particular region.  Variation in Civilization supremacy is also bound by climate.  Variation in climate leads to variation in the culture.  Religion and racial character is the product of climate.  A 20-degree temperature is an ideal climate condition for high mental and physical productivity. o Northeast USA, UK, and northwest Europe are the best climates for innovation and living. The industrial revolution started in this region. o The advancement of Americans/ Europeans in the fields of science and technology has thus been attributed to cyclonic weather and temperate climatic conditions by Huntington  Ancient civilizations developed in the fertile river valley with favorable climates. For examples : o Indus valley civilization flourished on the banks of the Indus river. o Mesopotamia Civilization flourished on the banks of the Nile river. o Chinese Civilization flourished on the banks of the Yellow River.  Huntington divided the world in the mild and harsh climatic zones and established that the ancient civilizations (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, Indus) flourished in the fertile river valleys of mild climates. He also established the hypothesis of invasion and tribal warfare.  The great outpouring of nomadic people from Central Asia which led to Mongols’ conquest of Iran, Iraq, Turan, Turkistan, Central Asia, China and India and the raids in Eastern Europe in the 13th century could be explained by the dying of pastures on which the nomads were dependent.  According to Huntington, religion and racial character are the products of climate.  The underdevelopment of the tropics, he explains, is owing to the humid, hot, oppressive weather which makes the people lethargic, lazy, inefficient, suspicious and timid. Huntington thus believed that out of all the factors of natural environment, climate was the fundamental factor in the rise of civilization (1939).  The attacker attitude of Mongolians developed due to the harsh climate and scarcity of resources in Mangole.  Views of other geographers and scholars on environmental determinism  Al-Jahiz (from East Africa), believed that the dark skin of Africans is the result of the prevalent black basalt rocks in the region.  An Arab Geographer, Ibn Khaldun believed that the dark skin of people living in Sub-Saharan Africa is caused by the prevalent hot climate in the region.  Friedrich Ratzel also supported the theory of Darwin's Origin of Species. He believed that cultural evolution is largely determined by the environment. Friedrich Ratzel has considered the father of determinism thought in geography.  Cultural Factors and Environmental Complexity  Environmental determinism is regarded by many people as overly simplistic because it neglects the cultural factors that affect human behaviour.  Two societies that inhabit areas having similar climates and landforms may be very dissimilar. How could two contrasting societies like Bakarwals and Kashmiris of Jammu & Kashmir, Nepalis and Khasis of Meghalaya, Assamese and Bengalis of the Brahmaputra Valley, Tharus and Sikhs of the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, for example, exist in a similar environment and have different modes of life and cultural ethos, if climate dictated patterns of life?  An example can be found among the Chinese and the Japanese who migrated to Europe and America. Their weight and height increased after a period of time.  The Pygmies also lose their characteristics when transplanted to plain regions where agriculture and cattle-raising provide much more varied food. Thus, the short statured races became tall-statured tones.  Correlation between Animal Protein Consumption and Birth Rates Worldwide  The influence of physical factors on food habits and the consequent effect on the rate of birth in different regions can be seen in the fact that the high birth rates (above 30) are all confined to tropical countries.  If we compare the birth rate with the intake of animal proteins throughout the world, we find a clear correlation between the two factors, i.e., fertility going down as consumption of such proteins rises.  For example, the daily intake of animal protein in Sweden and Denmark is 63 grams and 60 grams respectively and the birth rate is 15 and 18 per thousand respectively.  In India and Malaysia, only about 7 grams and 8 grams of animal protein is consumed respectively and the corresponding birth rate in these countries is 35 and 33 per thousand respectively.  Environment's Influence on Culture and Human Adaptation  There is evidence showing that terrain, topography, temperature, rainfall, humidity, vegetation and soil, individually and collectively, affect social and economic institutions and thereby the mode of life of people, yet the role of man as a transforming agent of his physical surroundings is quite significant.  In fact, acts of man reveal many facts for which environmental forces alone can give no satisfactory explanation.  For example, similar environment does not always invoke the same response. Eskimos differ markedly from the Tundra tribes of Siberia.  Pygmy hunters share the equatorial forests of Central Africa with agricultural Negroes in a remarkable symbiosis.  The Khasis, Garos and Jaintias of Meghalaya and the Lushais of Mizoram, living under almost similar climatic and environmental conditions, have marked variations in physical traits, physique, dietary habits, standard of literacy and attitude towards life.  The Gujjars and Bakarwals of Jammu & Kashmir like to settle on slopes and to utilize these slopes for pastures while the Kashmiris like to settle in levelled areas and to utilize their arable land for paddy and orchard cultivation. The former are nomads while the latter are cultivators.  People of one kind of culture might concentrate in the valleys (Mesais and Kikuyus of East Africa) whereas another kind of people in the same area might concentrate their settlements on fertile uplands.  In fact, no two cultures and various ethnic groups within a physical environment evaluate and use the resources of an environment in exactly the same way.  This variation in the evaluation of resources is one of the main causes of differences in the lifestyle and stage of development of various ethnic groups and nations.  Reciprocal Influence: Man and Environment in Interplay  Environment undoubtedly influences man, man in turn changes his environment and the interaction is so intricate that it is difficult to know when one influence ceases and the other begins.  Many landscapes that appear natural to us are in truth the work of man.  Wheat, barley, olive, and vine, which dominate the Mediterranean countries, are entirely the products of human effort  Apple and almond orchards of Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Kumaun division of Uttar Pradesh are the creations of man.  Similarly, cultivation of basmati rice (a high water requiring variety) in only 50 cm rainfall areas of the Punjab and Haryana is the direct and conspicuous result of human efforts.  Wheat cultivation in West Bengal, Orissa and Dimapur of Nagaland is the outcome of the use being made of the innovation of high yielding varieties (HYV).  Countless such examples from the developed and the developing countries can be cited.  Thus, man and environment are intrinsically interdependent and it is difficult to say which becomes more influential and when.  Criticism of Environmental Determinism:  Environmental determinism considered humans as passive animals but human is not the passive animal, human can create and change the natural environment. The following way human changes the natural environment: Dam building, River linking, Artificial Raining, Green Revolution, Hydroculture, Soilless farming and Geenhouse Agriculture  Man, through his knowledge, scientific advancement and innovations, transforms the habitats and ecosystems drastically to fulfil his material needs. For his food, he is not dependent on his environment; at the time of droughts and inadequacies of foods, he may import cereals and other commodities from the distant regions which may save his species.  Moreover, he possesses the power, skill and technology to grow tropical crops (rice, sugarcane, rubber, spices, etc.) in the temperate and frigid regions under artificial conditions and vice versa.  Thus, the human life is not exclusively controlled by his habitat and natural environment.  Contrary to this, he himself is a great agent of transformation in his physical surroundings.  The principles of ecology do not apply on human societies with the same magnitude as they apply on plants and animals.  Human geography, therefore, cannot and should not be taken as human ecology. 4.1 (a) Geography as a Science of Distributions Geography as a science of distributions Early Emphasis on Distribution in Geography  It was during the pre-classical period (before Varenius and Kant) of the modern geography, when geography was considered as the science of distribution.  According to the followers of this philosophical approach, geography is a discipline whose purpose is to study the distribution of different phenomena, separately and in relation to each other, over the earth surface.  The point of view that geography is the study of distribution was presented with the greatest emphasis by Marthe, who described geography as the study of 'the where of things'.  More recently, it has been represented by De Geer who stressed on the concept of geography as the science of distribution. Distribution as a Fundamental Characteristic of Geography  If the study of distribution is fundamental to the character of geography, not merely incidental to other purposes, it must form a characteristic distinguishing geography from other fields.  This necessary conclusion has led many to suppose that when a botanist determines the regional distribution of a particular plant, or a geologist determines the location of a volcano, or a sociologist maps the distribution of population in a country, instead of merely using a statistical table, the botanist, geologist or sociologist becomes thereby a geographer - or, at least, is working in geography.  But, as Michotte concludes from this series of examples, each of these students is carrying on work necessary to the understanding of the particular kind of phenomena that he is studying from the point of view, not of geography, but of his own science.  The use of inductive method, in any of the sciences dealing with phenomena located within the earth surface, in the effort to establish the relationship that governs the character and development of the phenomena of that particular science, will often require the determination of the phenomena before any principles can be determined. Humboldt’s & Ritter’s Influence  Geography as the study of distribution is a derivation from Humboldt's description of geography as the study of that which exists together in area.  Humboldt, during the expedition of the Orinoco river, Amazon basin, Andes Mountains Colombia, Ecuador, Cuba and West Indies, established the fact that there are variations in the distribution of vegetation, soils, temperature and precipitation.  Consequently, there are variations in the distribution of population and their economic activities.  Ritter, a teleologist, also discussed the spatial distribution of physical phenomena in his monumental work- Erdkunde. Hettner’s Prespective  Hettner, in some of his writings, declared that geography deals with ‘distribution by place’.  He, while dealing with the distribution of animals and plants, emphasized the significance of Wallace Line which separates the plants and animals of Australia from those of Asia and South-East Asia.  Hettner, however, explained that such a distribution of animals falls in the domain of zoological geography or simply animal geography.  The same distinction in point of view, Hettner illustrated by several other examples of natural features.  In each case, a view that the systematic science is focused on the phenomena, which are studied in their distribution, that of geography on the areas that differ from each other in their mineral, floral, or fauna contents. Sauer's Focus on Cultural Morphology and Human Interactions  Sauer, in his Cultural Morphology (Morphology of Landscape) and Agricultural Origins and Dispersal, focused upon the regional patterns and interactions of human culture - both material and non-material- in relation to natural environment.  In another publication, Hettner asserted that if history may be considered as the science of when, geography would be logically the science of the where.  The main objective and function of geography is to know where the phenomena are (the major thrust of systematic geography). Challenges to the Concept of Geography as Distribution-focused  Only the problem of determining and describing the where of things is not the distinctive function of geography; it is concerned to provide accurate, orderly and rational description and interpretation of the variable character of the earth's surface.  The concept of geography as the discipline dealing with distribution has therefore not been accepted by the geographers as the main sphere of geography. 4.1 (b) Geography as a Science of Areal Differentiation Geography as a science of Areal Differentiation Introduction  Areal Differentiation is the study of variations in human and physical phenomena across different regions and their relationships with other spatially close and causally linked phenomena. It focuses on understanding how various factors, such as climate, vegetation, and population patterns, differ across different areas and how these differences are related to one another.  For instance, human and physical phenomena can be observed in areas like the National Capital Region (NCR), which has fluctuating boundaries and evolving population patterns. Spatial proximity is an essential aspect of Areal Differentiation, as it requires that the regions being compared are close enough for a meaningful analysis.  For example, agricultural zones like wheat and rice- growing areas cannot be compared with industrial zones due to their distinct characteristics.  Areal differentiation is a concept of human geography in which more emphasis is placed on the study of the specificity/uniqueness of a geographical area rather than on the standardization of geographical phenomena for making geographical models.  The concept of Areal differentiation (AD) later evolved into regional geography.  The term 'areal differentiation' was coined and used by Hartshorne in his-classic-work, The Nature of Geography, published in 1939.  Areal Differentiation, also known as chorology and chorography, investigates the variations in different areas or regions, considering that nature is not uniform everywhere. Factors such as climate, vegetation, and other phenomena vary in their characteristics, intensity, and magnitude across different regions.  The concept of Areal Differentiation was first introduced by Hartshorne in his seminal work "The Nature of Geography published in 1939. This approach provides a scientific and rational definition of geography as a discipline that focuses on the accurate description, analysis, and understanding of the variable characteristics of Earth's surface in general and specific regions in particular.  In essence, Areal Differentiation helps determine whether the differences or similarities between regions should be considered in a study. This approach is often referred to as "idiographic" because it focuses on the uniqueness and particular aspects of each region. The idiographic approach is centered on identifying and analyzing differences between various regions, contributing to a deeper understanding of the diverse characteristics of Earth's surface Historical Background  Perspectives in Human Geography explores the philosophical basis for the development of Geography. Areal Differentiation, the oldest tradition in Western Geographical inquiry, was initially introduced by Hecataeus of Miletus in the 6th Century BC and later developed into the concept of Chorology by Strabo in his 17 books on Geography. Strabo defined a geographer as someone who "describes the parts of Earth", with the emphasis on "described" and "parts", which relate to Regional Geography.  Following Strabo, Immanuel Kant provided a philosophical foundation for chorology, making him the philosophical father of Geography. The evolution of this concept can be traced from Hecataeus to Strabo, Kant, Hettner, and finally to Hartshorne. Hettner established Chorology as a Regional Science, and his concept served as an inspiration and guiding principle for Hartshorne. As per Richard Hartshorne regarding Areal Differentiation(AD),  Geography is the science of studying Areal Differentiation (AD).  In Areal Differentiation (AD), emphasis is given to the division of Earth's surface into several homogeneous regions based on the uniformity of different spatial variables.  Division of the earth's surface is done because each geographical area has its own uniqueness which is different from other geographical areas.  The study of the uniqueness and variances (from other homogeneous regions) of these homogeneous regions is called Areal Differentiation(AD). Three principles are used in areal differentiation.  On the basis of the uniqueness and uniformity of the geographical area, a geographical area is divided. For example, on the basis of relief variables, we can divide the surface of the earth into plains, mountains, plateaus, etc. geographer who made a major contribution to location theory in his study of Central Places in Southern Germany. Subsequently, American urban geographers developed theoretical models of urban places. In other branches of geography, e.g. populations, regional, cultural and economic geography, a range of different statistical methods were gradually brought into use. Thus the diffusion of quantitative techniques took place in the 1960s which enabled the geographers to develop more refined theories and models. Merits of Quantitative Methods The advantages of the application of quantitative techniques in geographical studies are many. 1. The quantitative techniques are firmly based on empirical observations and are readily verifiable. 2. The statistical techniques help in reducing a multitude of observations, data and facts to a manageable number of factors. 3. These techniques help in the estimation, interpolation, and simulation of data which are necessary for forecasting. 4. They also help in describing, analysing and simplifying a geographical system. 5. Locational theories of industries, agricultural land use intensity, and stages of development of landforms can be easily understood and predicted with the help of quantitative techniques. 6. These techniques provide framework within which theoretical statements can be formally presented. 7. The models formulated with the help of quantitative techniques are generally free from biasness and they are of immense use in the building of theories, general and special laws. 8. Finally, quantitative revolution based on positivism distinguishes science from metaphysics and religion and thus provides the subject of geography a sound philosophical, scientific and methodological base. Demerits of Quantitative Methods The application of quantitative techniques in geographical studies has been criticized on several counts. Some of the weaknesses and limitations of quantitative techniques have been given as under: 1. The quantitative revolution was based on the philosophy of which distinguishes science from religion and metaphysics. The man and environment relationship cannot be properly established by the models designed with the help of quantitative techniques. 2. The advocates of quantitative revolution pleaded for the language of geometry. Geometry is not an acceptable language to explain the man and environment relationship - the main theme of human geography. 3. The models and theories developed on the basis of empirical data exclude the normative questions like beliefs, taboos, emotions, attitudes, desires, hopes, fears, likes and dislikes, prejudices and aesthetic values. It is because of these values that dairying is not developing among the Khasis (Meghalaya) and Lushais (Mizoram) of the North-East India. In fact, taking milk is a taboo in these tribes. 4. The advocates of quantitative techniques in geography focused on 'locational analysis'. The main weakness of the locational analysis is that it promotes capitalism. In a capitalistic society, there is exploitation of human and environmental resources (land, water, forest and minerals) which makes the rich richer and the poor poorer. 5. With the development of sophisticated machinery and automation, there is less scope of employment. Thus, it leads to unemployment and it is a system of wasteful production. 6. The assumption that man is a 'rational person' who always tries to optimize system of wasteful production. his profit has also been criticized. 7. The assumption that man has 'infinite knowledge' of his space or environment (resources) has also been criticized. 8. Models developed with the help of quantitative techniques reduced people (decision makers, workers) to passive agents. 9. Application of quantitative techniques demands not only considerable mathematical power, they also demand reliable data which is rarely available in the developing countries like India. In fact, the data collected in the developing countries has many pitfalls and shortcomings. 10. The models developed with the help of statistical techniques give more prominence to some features and distort some others. Despite all these merits and demerits of quantitative revolution, it may be summarized that 'spatial science' was inaugurated in North America. By the end of 1960s it was dominating many of the journals published throughout the English-speaking world. Most research was positivist in its tone. Most of the researchers used quantitative methods, and thus contributed to the development of theories and models. But these theories and models presented only a partial picture of the man-environment relationship. This methodology was criticized and as a reaction to this behavioural and humanistic approaches were introduced in human geography. In some cases, even in social science, a purely quantitative approach is necessary and in others requires a purely qualitative approach, and often a combination of the two is more satisfactory for making estimations and predictions in geography. Models in Geography (Significance and Types) In the post-Second World War period, the definition of geography, geographic thought, and geographic methodology have undergone great transformation. In order to put the subject on a sound footing and to command respect in sister disciplines, geographers have increasingly concentrated in the last few decades on the theme of geographic generalization, formulation of models, theories and general laws. This geographic generalization is also known as ‘model-building’. The term ‘model’ has been defined differently by different geographers. In the opinion of Skilling (1964), a model is “either a theory, a law, a hypothesis, or a structured idea. Most important, from the geographical point of view, it can also include reasoning about the real world (physical and cultural landscape) by means of relation in space or time. It can be a role, a relation or an equation”. Most of the geographers of the post-Second World War period have widely conceived models as idealized or simplified representation of reality (geographic landscape and man-nature relationship). Significance of Model:  Geography is a discipline which deals with the interpretation of man-nature relationship. The earth—the real document of geographical studies—is however, quite complex and cannot be comprehended easily. The earth’s surface has great physical and cultural diversity.  In geography, we examine location, landforms, climate, soils, natural vegetation and minerals’ spatial distribution and their utilization by mankind which lead to the development of cultural landscape.  Moreover, geography is a dynamic subject as the geographical phenomena change in space and time.  The subject matter of geography, i.e., the complex relationship of man and environment can be examined and studied scientifically by means of hypotheses, models and theories.  The basic aim of all models is to simplify a complex situation and thus render it more amenable to investigations.  In fact, models are tools which allow theories to be tested. A more restricted view of models is that they are predictive devices. Need of Modelling in Geography: Geographers are interested in making laws and theories in their discipline like those in physical, biological and social sciences. Model is a device for understanding the vast interacting system comprising all humanity and its natural environment on the surface of the earth. Modelling in geography is, therefore, done due to the following reasons: 1. A model-based approach is often the only possible means for arriving at any kind of quantification or formal measurement of unobserved or unobservable phenomena. 2. Models help in estimations, forecasts, simulations, interpolation and generation of data. The future growth and density of population, use of land, intensity of cropping, migration pattern of population, industrialization, urbanization and growth of slums may be predicted with the help of such models. 3. These are very useful in the forecast of weather, change of climate, change in sea level, environmental pollution, soil erosion, forests depletion and evolution of landforms. 4. A model helps in describing, analyzing and simplifying a geographical system. Locational theories of industries, zoning of agricultural land use, patterns of migration and stages of development of landforms can be easily understood and predicted with the help of models. 5. Geographical data are enormous and with every passing day these data are becoming more and more difficult to understand. Modelling is undertaken for structuring, exploring, organizing and analyzing the obtained enormous data through discriminating pattern and correlation. 6. Alternative models can be used as ‘laboratories’ for surrogate observation of systems of interest which cannot be observed directly, and for experimenting and estimating the effects and consequences of possible changes in particular components. 7. Models help in improving the understanding of causal mechanism, relationships between micro and macro properties of a system and the environment. 8. Models provide framework within which theoretical statements can be formally represented and their empirical validity then put under scrutiny. 9. Modelling provides linguistic economy to geographers and social scientists who understand their language. 10. Models help in the building of theories, general and special laws. Features of a Model: The main features of a model are as under: 1. The geographical reality of the earth’s surface and man-environment relationship are quite complex. Models are the selective pictures of the world or part of it. 2. Models give more prominence to some features and obscure and distort some others. 3. Models contain suggestions for generalization. As stated above, predictions can be made about the real world with the help of models. 4. Models are analogies as they are different from the real world. In other words, models are different from reality. 5. Models tempt us to formulate hypothesis and help us in generalizing and theory-building. 6. Models show some features of the real world in a more familiar, simplified, observable, accessible, easily formulated or controllable form, from which conclusions can be drawn. 7. Models provide a framework wherein information may be defined, collected and arranged. 8. Models help in squeezing out the maximum amount of information from the available data. 9. Models help to explain how a particular phenomenon comes into existence. 10. Models also help us to compare some phenomena with the more familiar ones. 11. Models cause a group of phenomena to be visualized and comprehended which otherwise could not be comprehended because of its magnitude or complexity. 12. Models form stepping-stones to the building of theories and laws. Types of Models: As described earlier, the term ‘model’ has been used in a great variety of contexts. Owing to the great variety, it is difficult to define even the broad types of models without ambiguity. One division is between the descriptive and the normative. The descriptive model is concerned with some stylistic description of reality whereas the normative model deals with what might be expected to occur under certain stated or assumed conditions. Descriptive models may be concerned with the organization of empirical information, and termed as data, classificatory (taxonomic), or experimental design models. Contrary to this, normative models involve the use of a more familiar situation as a model for a less familiar one, either in a time (historical) or a spatial (geographical) sense and have a strongly predictive connotation. On the basis of stuff (data) from which they are made, models may also be classified into hardware, physical or experimental models. The physical or experimental model may be iconic (idol-shaped) in which the relevant properties of the real world are presented with the same properties with only a change in scale. For example, maps, globes and geological models are physical or experimental models. Models may be an analogue (simulation) having real world properties represented by different properties. Analogue or simulation models are concerned with symbolic assertion of a verbal or mathematical kind in logical terms. General Classification of Models: A more simple classification of models illustrated with examples has been given as follows: Scale Models: Scale models, also called hardware models, are perhaps the easiest type to appreciate as they are direct reproductions, usually on a smaller scale of reality. Scale models may be either static, like the model of a land surface of a geological model, or dynamic, like a wave tank or river flume. Dynamic models are perhaps more interesting and useful in geographical work. The great advantage that a dynamic model has over reality is that the operative processes can be controlled. This allows each variable to be studied separately. Scale models are often used by physical geographers and especially by geomorphologists. In fact, geomorphologists have carried out fundamental research with scale models in order to investigate processes that are difficult to observe under natural conditions, such as river action, glacial movement, wind erosion, marine processes and erosion by underground water. Maps: Maps are the models that are most familiar to geographers. They are a special type of scale model which become increasingly abstract as the scale becomes smaller. At one end of the spectrum is the stereo-pair vertical air-photograph which provides virtually a true scale model of the real world. It is, however, static and represents only the area shown at one instance of time. A simple vertical air photograph loses the impression of height but still shows all the visible elements of the landscape virtually true to scale. Theoretical Models: Theoretical models can be divided into two categories. The conceptual models provide a theoretical view of a particular problem allowing deductions from the theory to be matched against the real situation. This can be exemplified by the theoretical consideration of the effect of a rising and falling sea level upon the coastal zone if certain specific conditions are fulfilled. It is assumed that wave erosion is the only process operating, that waves can only erode rock to certain depth of the order of about 13 metres (40 feet) and that the waves erode a wave-cut platform to a certain gradient below which they cannot operate effectively. It is also assumed that the initial coastal slope is steeper than this gradient. A consideration of the prolonged action of waves eroding under these conditions, with a rising and falling sea level, leads to the conclusion that only with a slowly rising sea level, can a wave-cut platform of great width be produced. The theoretical forms of the coastal zone under the various conditions specified can be established and then compared with actual coastal zones. Much more elaborate theoretical models of this conceptual type have been developed in the study of the evolution of slope profiles. These are based on the known or assumed effect of different slope processes. A long series of stages of modification can be derived from this type of theoretical model, and these can again be matched with actual slopes. The second type of theoretical model is associated with the word ‘theory’, when this is used to denote the overall framework of a whole discipline. The framework must not be too rigid or it will cramp the growing edges of the subject, where the most exciting work is going on. The ideal is a flexible framework that can contain a wide variety of geographical endeavour and yet give it coherence and purpose. Models are particularly valuable in this context as they are often common to all branches of the subject and so help to give it unity. An analogy may help to illustrate the way in which the vast and growing amount of geographical data may be organized within a theoretical framework. Geography may be compared with a five-storeyed building, each storey being supported by the one below and supporting the one above (Fig. 11.1): (1) The lowest storey is the one which accommodates the data, the raw material of geographical study. (2) The data lead up to the level of model where they are organized in a suitable way for analysis. (3) The techniques of analysis, lying on the next storey, depend on the model adopted for the study. (4) Analysis leads up to the next floor, concerned with the development of theories. (5) The theories in turn lead up to formulation of tendencies and laws. These are located at the top as they are the ultimate aim of geographical methodology. Critical Views: Simplification Concerns:  Modelers aim to simplify complex geographical phenomena, but they may oversimplify or under-simplify, leading to misunderstandings or inaccurate predictions.  Oversimplification can mislead students and generate false conclusions, while under-simplification fails to explain reality adequately. Focus on Wrong Aspects:  Sometimes models concentrate on the wrong variables or factors, making them overly complex and not fulfilling the simplification criterion.  Techniques like principal component analysis and regression can result in models more complicated than the original data.  Models may also include some key points while omitting others, leading to imbalanced representations. Applicability Concerns:  Some geographers believe modeling should not be applied universally across all branches of geography.  They argue that in human geography, regional geography, cultural geography, and historical geography, modeling may distort the subject by emphasizing certain aspects at the expense of others. Human-Centric Limitations:  Critics argue that geography is not purely a physical science and models may struggle to account for normative aspects like beliefs, values, emotions, and attitudes.  Models may not adequately address human elements, making them unreliable tools for explaining geographical reality. Generalization Challenges:  Generalizing geographical events with models can be problematic, especially when considering idiosyncratic human actions and free will.  Some geographers are more interested in specific, regional cases where general models may be deemed irrelevant. Mathematical Complexity:  Mathematical and statistical tools used in models can be challenging for geographers, students, policymakers, and the public to understand.  The use of mathematical symbolism can create a barrier to comprehension. Continual Reassessment:  Models need continuous reassessment, modification, and replacement, as knowledge is in constant flux.  The ever-evolving nature of knowledge means models must adapt to changing understandings of geographical phenomena. Data Limitations:  Many models rely on reliable data, which can be scarce or unreliable in developing and underdeveloped countries.  Weak data can lead to distorted and faulty model outcomes, resulting in incorrect predictions. Global Applicability Issues:  Models developed in advanced Western countries may not apply universally, as they may not consider diverse socio-cultural and agro-industrial processes worldwide.  Generalizations based on Western models may yield misleading results when applied to different regions with unique characteristics. Temporal and Regional Disparities:  Models based on data from a specific historical period and region may not be suitable for other regions or eras, potentially leading to disastrous outcomes when applied elsewhere.