IB Psychology - Sociocultural Approach Key Terms, Study notes of Psychology

Download IB Psychology - Sociocultural Approach Key Terms and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Individual and the group - Social Identity Theory People have the basic need to “belong” ---> belonging to a group has been essential throughout evolution Culture Influences behaviour → Norms and values that define a specific group/society. Humans have social self ---> Since humans are social animals, they have a social self (family, club, etc) Behaviour is influence by others, even when we believe we are acting individually. Reciprocal Determinism (Albert Bandura): Model in social learning that says individual (thoughts, feelings), environment and the behaviour influence each other through determining actions in a given situation. Conformity: Change of behaviour as a result of real or imagined group pressure or norms. Result: of one of our most basic human behaviours: Social comparison. Social Comparison: Looking/comparing at others to determine how to behave and to validate our own behaviours/opinions. Informational Social Influence: Where a person conforms due to desire to be right and looks towards others w more information. Normative Social Influence: Looking at others to see how to behave. Conformity - Adapting behaviour to be in line with others. Reciprocal Determinism - the individual is affected by being part of a group and the individual can also affect behaviour in the group. Script - mental road map that contains the basic actions comprising a complex action (script schema) Asch (1956): Vision test testing conformity and power of the group, comparison on how having others in the group (who were told to give wrong answers) influenced others to change their answers. Compared to the group which did not have any other people in the room. Group pressure with factors rooted in society’s values and socialization practices. Only one was a real participant giving judgements, the rest of the participants gave inaccurate answers *at various times* on length of lines and real participants conformed to the incorrect yet common answer. Placebo: writing answers rather than having to say out loud and disagree w the group. Participants confirmed because of…. A combination of informational and normative social influences. Asch Paradigm: series of experiments run by Asch investigating conformity and group-think impact on person conform. Abrams et al - Pluralistic ignorance experiment where fake fire occurs and time in which fake participants pretend not to be concerned by fire and real participant reacts to decide how long until they leave. Compared to participants who do not have other people there and react independently. High heuristic. Limitations: Undo stress and harm, students vs artist. Conformity Research (Revision and going deeper) HW 1. What is the difference between informational social influence and normative social influence? Informational social influence and normative social influence influence is that in information social influence people look towards others to be correct and assume others know more. Meanwhile normative social influence is to conform in attempts to be accepted/liked/fit in with the group. Informational: Looking towards others for the correct information. Normative: Conforming to fit in and feel like you belong (going along even if you don’t want to) 2. Asch carried out a famous study for conformity. Explain why this study is an “experiment” The experiment conducted by Asch has the aspects of: describing, explaining, predicting and influencing conditions in attempts to influence behaviour (in this case the groups influencing conformity) IV (social pressure), DV (level we conform), random allocation. 3. Define pluralistic ignorance. Why does it happen? When individual members of a group believe that others in their group hold more extreme attitudes on beliefs, behaviors or decisions. This may just be an assumed norm that does not make up the actual group norm. This is based on the assumption when someone feels they feel different from the rest of their group/society and therefore do not admit to their own attitude. *related to bystander effect except bystander is more normative* 4. How did Abrams explain people waited so long to leave the room, even though they believed that they were in danger? The people withina group assumed others understood the risk better or did not wish to be the odd one out and be perceived as overreacting to the risk - therefore this was a case of social conformity. Power of the group + script schema (looking towards group to break the script). 5. According to the video that we watched of the original Asch study, what two factors resulted in a decrease in the level of conformity? a) Being anonymous *writing on paper* b) Having someone who also broke the status quo *partners* (unanimity) 6. Different textbooks explain the results of the Asch experiment differently. Here are some ways that the data is explained to students of psychology: a. ⅔ of the naive participants conformed at least once b. 25% of the subjects were completely independent and never agreed with the erroneous judgements of the majority c. 36.8% of the participants confirmed in more than half of their trials What different messages do these results send? Why could it be argued that the way this study is often represented in textbooks is misleading? Yes it could be because in certain cases it sounds like participants are less affected by the social group than what is said in other articles. It is one of the examples of lying with statistics - yes 66% of them conformed at least once but what proportion of trials is that. Not to the same scale. Conformation bias. “Framing” of statistics. Social Identity Theory Evaluated Using TEACUP Testable The theory is a testable but complex theory. Difficult to test theory in a natural environment. Sherif tested the theory in the Rattlers and Eagle study, but such research led to ethical concerns. Evidence Tjfel and Turner studio of minimal group paradigm. Cialdini showed that sports fans identified with the team when the team won but distanced themselves from the team when the team lost, perhaps to protect their sense of self-esteem. Abram’s research on the role of SIT on the level of conformity. Research by Fiske provides biological support that the brain responds differently when exposed to an in-group vs an out-group. It appears that social categorization may be a process rooted in evolution. Applications Theory can be used to both explain behaviours (why someone conforms) and to change behaviour. Research by Drury shows that social identity can be manipulated to improve helping behaviours. In addition, SIT has been applied to decrease football hooliganism. *Duclos & Barasch (2014) found that manipulating the salience of a person’s collective identity may increase their likelihood to donate to a cause Constructs Construct Validity: Salience (feelings) and positive distinctiveness Difficult to measure how “salient” one’s personal or group identity actually is. Also difficult to determine how much one’s self-esteem can be attributed to group membership. Difficult to argue that one’s group identity and personal identity are necessarily separated entities. Question of online identities/global identities and effects on personal identities. Unbiased The theory is unbias but individual pieces can have some bias in them. The theory is applicable to cross-cultures and not restrictive to explain a singular one behaviour. Not holistic, arguing that our behaviour is the interaction of several factors. Predicts Behaviour Seems to be some evidence when our group identity is salient, that this predicts our behaviour. This is seen in the study by Duclos & Barasch - as well as in the study by Abrams. This appears to be the case in stereotype threat. However many cases theory can be better applied to explain behaviour than to predict behaviour. Bem’s theory of the origin of same-sex attraction - the theory is said to be more explanatory than predictive. Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Learning Theory: Assumes that humans learn behaviour through observational learning - people learn by watching models and imitating their behaviour. Developed mostly by Albert Bandura and suggests that behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of modelling and vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious Reinforcement - When we see someone else get positive feedback and therefore imitate the behaviour. (We don’t have to experience everything personally to learn) Modelling: Learning through the observation of other people which may lead to imitation if the behaviour is to be imitated leads to desirable consequences if we see behaviour reinforced or punished, we react accordingly Social Cognitive Learning involves the following cognitive factors: 1) Attention: In order to learn behaviour, the learner must pay attention to the model. There are certain factors that may influence whether attention is paid to the model, including the attractiveness of the model, the authority of the model, or the desirability of behaviours. 2) Retention: The observed must be able to remember the behaviour that has been observed in order to produce that behaviour immediately or after some time. 3) Motivation: Learns must want to replicate the behaviour that they have observed. In order to do this, they must understand what the potential outcome is if they repeat the behaviour - what bandura called outcome expectancies. Factors that influence whethether observer imitates/learns: a) Consistency: If the model behaves consistently b) Identification with model: If they are like us vs not c) Liking the model: Warm and friendly models > Cold, uncaring models 4) Potential: In order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behaviour (there needs to be self-efficacy) Factors that affect the overall potential for social learning: 1) The model stands out in contrast to other models. 2) The model’s behaviour must be consistent 3) The model is liked and respected by observer. 4) The observer perceives a similarity between him/herself and the model (member of in-group) 5) The model’s behaviour is reinforcement. Self Efficacy - An individuals belief in his/her capability to successfully accomplish a task. Reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behaviour and social environment. Bandura et al (1961) Bashing Bobo Doll Study - 36 boys, 36 girls aged 3-6 were divided into groups. The groups were matched with regard to aggression based on an evaluation by teachers. One group had aggressive adult models (towards the Bobo Doll), the second group had a non-aggressive adult model (bobo doll), and the third had no model. Some watched the same sex, some watched opposite. Prime the kids by giving them toys and then saying “nope not for you, for someone else” and took kids to other room. Bandura found children who had observed the aggressive model were more aggressive (while playing with dolls) and the girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression and boys physical aggression (3IV for this trial) Follow up study in 1963 by Bandura, Ross and Ross to see how they reacted to watching films in which children who watched violently were more aggressive than real/person/no cartoon. Methodological considerations: Aggression modelled (1st) was not standardized (but second fixed this). Observations from teachers/parents were likely not accurate. Demand characteristics: children may have acted aggressively to please the researcher. Ethics of children and violent behaviour. Hesmann and Eron (1986) Longitudinal study over 15 years. Positive correlation between the number of hours of violence watched on television in elementary and level of aggression as teens. Only correlational with no cause and effect relationship to be concluded. Bashing Bobo - Checking for understanding 1. Ethical concerns: Socializing children for violence and unaware of long term side effects, children unsure they were being tested on (covert experiment) and to what extent were parents aware of the assignment (debriefing of parents afterwards). 2. Bandura evaluates the level of aggression because.. Establishing baseline to compare before/after. a. Strength: Data Triangulation (data from different sources) b. Limitation: the subjectivity of scale of aggression 3. Bandura used a matched-pair design - Matching participants with aggressive to assign groups. 4. Independent variables: Gender of the model, gender of children, and level of aggression of model. 5. Dependent variable: Aggression showed while playing compared to usual aggression. 6. Control group: Comparison of how the children were naturally inclined to a particular behaviour 7. Why were the children put in a room full of toys only to be told they couldn’t play: to prime and provoke the children to be frustrated/anger in the first place. 8. According to social cognitive theory, why does it make sense that there was a gender difference in aggression: Considerations of in-group and out-group - imitation based on the person we have the most similarity with. Causes of Stereotyping: Schneider (2004) argues two ways for stereotypes to develop: indirectly (product of our culture, socially) or directly (as a result of our own experience with people directly) Campbell (1967) claims only 2 sources of stereotypes: personal experience with individuals and groups and gapekeepers - media, family and culture. Have basis in some reality, grain of truth hypothesis: experience with an individual from a group will then become a generalization to the group. Hamilton and Gifford (1976): stereotypes are result of an illusory correlation. People see a relationship between variables even if there are none. Illusory correlation: example of cognitive bias: a personals tendency to make errors in judgement based on cognitive factors. Attribution errors other examples. Confirmation bias: tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories. (People overlook information that contradicts their beliefs. They pay attention to behaviours that confirm what they believe). Confirmation bias makes stereotypical thinking resistant to change. Hamilton & Gifford (1976): Participants listened to a series of statements made about people from two groups: group a (26kids), group b (13kids). Each group had same proportion of positive and negative comments. After participants were asked how many people of each group had positive and negative traits - participants overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group. Hamilton & Gifford claimed that this wass due to the minority group being smaller by nimber so negative bejaviours appeared more distinct and appeared to be representative of the group - one minority caught stealing, appears to be related to the fact that they are minority hence negative stereotypes being more common amongst minorities. Snyder and Swann (1978) conducted a study in which they told female college students they would meet a person who was either introverted or extroverted - participants came up with questions to ask the person and in general they prepared a set of questions confirming perceptions of introverts and extroverts. Researchers concluded that the questions asked confirmed participants’ stereotypes. Rogers and Frantz (1962) - Individuals may conform to the group norms with regard to the “other” - Cross selectional study. Found White immigrants to Rhodesia (ZImbabwe) developed more sterotypes and prejudice against local people the longer they stayed their. They adopted social norms that were dominant in the group they were joining to fit in. Effects of stereotyping Stereotyping is a form of schema processing so stereotyping can affect behaviour. Two ways stereotyping affects behaviour: stereotype threat and memory distortion. Steele and Aronson (1995) - 30-min verbal test, made up of very difficult multiple choice questions. Stereotype threat. One group was told it was genuine test of verbal abilities, african american participants scored significantly lower than European american participants. In another group they were presented the same test but was not told that it was diagnostic of their skills - african american students did much better and was not significantly different from european american students. Impossible to argue awareness of racial stereotyping to be actual cause of difference. So did another version with participants recognizing their race - african americans who had to identify their race did poorly versus those who did not did just as well as the european american peers. Spencer et al (1999): tested the effect of the stereotype threat on intellectual performance. Spotlight anxiety. Researchers made difficult math tests for students who were strong in math - predicted women under stereotype would under-perform compared to the men. Found that this was true in that women in the experiment significantly underperformed compared to equally qualified men or the difficult math tests. Meanwhile, in literature skills (no stereotype in this area) - the two groups performed equally well. Martin & Halverson (1983): Researchers wanted to see if gender stereotyping would influence recall in 5 and 6-yea-old children. Each child was shown 16 pictures - half depicted a child performing gender-consistent activities and half showing children displaying gender-inconsistent behaviours. One week later, tested the recall of the children to see how many of the photos that they could recall accurately. While behaviour was gender inconsistent, children distorted details of the truck to remember who had been playing to be “correct’ gender Useful link: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB_Psychology/Levels/Socioculturalinfor Origins of Stereotypes Check-up 1. What role does confirmation bias play in stereotyping? Confirmation bias makes it harder for people to change their perspective because they continue to be selective with the new information that they see/observe. *resistant to change* 2. What do we mean when we say that a stereotype is a schema? Stereotypes are formed over time and you are placing people into groups based to assume characteristics or information about them. 3. How can social identity theory be used to explain the origin of stereotyping? In-group and out-group that is existent within stereotyping and so positive dissonance to assign people to a group to be better than them. 4. With regard to the sample in the study by Rogers & Frantz, what is the problem with their conclusion about conformity to group norms over time? Schema experienced based on time depended on participants due to the large range in their age and the time in which they had been living within Zimbabwe. 5. What is meant by illusory correlation? When people perceive relationships between variables even if no such relationship exists. 6. What is one limitation of the study by Hamilton and Gifford? True lack of ecological validity and is very artificial with being laboratory but also when you consider that stereotypes develop over time. Culture: A dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life Plays a role in the creation of our schema (and what we remember) and how we remember Cultural norms: These are the rules that indicate the expected behaviour in a group Dimensions of culture: The perspective of a culture based on values and cultural norms. Dimensions work on a continuum - for example, a culture is never 100% collectivist or individualist but are different levels with a preference for one set of behaviours over another. Enculturation: the process of adopting or internalizing the schemas of your culture. Ethnocentrism: The inability to empathize with another culture; to assume that one’s own culture is the standard by which other cultures are assessed. Cole and Scribner (1974) - Emic approach to see how culture could affect memory with the effect that schooling would have on the strategies that children used to memorize lists of words. Studied the development of memory along tribal people in rural Liberia compared to children in US - Liberian children in school and not in school. To overcome barriers in language and culture, researchers observed everyday before conducting experiment. Aim: To see if culture had a different effect on how one memorizes. They were given a free-recall task people where they were shown a large number of objects and asked to remember them. People are free to recall the items in any order they wish. Findings: Schooling affects the way that we learn information specifically w the chunking/categorizing in list idea. Considered an emic approach since they adapted the list of words to reflect the culture of the participants. Kearins (1981) - Visuospatial comparison between the aborigines children and the white Australian children. The aborigines Australian children did poorly on the verbal tests but the visuospatial comparison. Manmade and natural objects w 12 seconds to memorize and as long to put back into place. Hardest should be rocks for verbal children since harder to verbally describe. The aborigines child would preform 3 years above the Australian children. Considerations in the natural environment and the aborigines children having to be able to determine the difference. White children mumble while putting them back into their place (due to assigning names → more vocal) Demonstrate people learn to remember in ways that are relevant to their everyday lives and these do not always mirror the activities that cognitive psychologists use to investigate mental processes Hofestede’s theory of individualistic vs collectivistic cultures explain kulkofsky’s findings with regard to flashbulb memory: Individualistic cultures tend to focus more on their roles in events. Enculturation Enculturation - Significant part of the development of our personal identity is the learning and maintenance of the behaviours and norms of our own culture. It constant process reinforces your identity as a member of your culture. “Manner in which we learn the behaviours that are appropriate for our own culture, so understanding how we adopt the appropriate gender behaviours for our culture is done through enculturation” Children develop through socialisation to understand values, language, expectations of the culture Value Enculturation - Attitudes about social relationships, gender roles, rimes orientation, beliefs about health/illness, beliefs about morality Direct Tuition - Parents tell you what you are supposed to do + observational learning + participatory learning Participatory learning - Engaging in activities that are meant to instill certain values, beliefs, expectation/ Acculturation Acculturation - The process when people begin to adopt the norms and behaviour of the majority culture after moving into a new culture (ex: migrant workers or foreign students) Berry (2004) - Acculturation is the process of cultural and psychological change that takes plae as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups - at the individual level, it involves changes in a persons behaviour. Berry (1984) proposedfour different acculturation strategies used by individuals: assimilation, integration, separation, marginalization. Assimilation: When an individual abandons their original culture and adopts the cultural behaviours and values of their new culture. Integration: when there is an interest in adopting the behaviours and values of the new culture while maintaining the original culture. Separation: When people maintain their own culture and minimize contact with the new culture. Marginalization: Results when it is not possible to maintain original culture, but because of exclusion/discrimination, they also can not assimilate into the new culture. Berry Acculturation Model argues that the four strategies are the result of not only individual’s belief to maintain culture and also situational factors in new culture. Importance of maintaining one’s original culture Positive relationship with the new culture Yes No Yes Integration Seperation No Assimiliation Marginalization Encultural: Maintaining one’s cultural identity, acculturationL changing one’s culture to fit in. “We are social animals with the need to belong so not feeling to be included is stressful” ---> acculturative stress (the result of this tension: psychological, somatic, and social difficulties may accompany acculturation resulting in anxiety, depression and other forms of mental/physical stress (also called “culture shock”) Acculturation gaps: Generational differences in acculturation and leads to conflict within the family. Sojourner: Someone who moves to another country but does not plan on integrating into the local culture - done for work or education opportunities. Difference in enculturation and acculturation: enculturation takes place in the culture you grow up in, acculturation is the result of interacting with another culture. High power distance: hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society without doubt or reason. Lueck and Wilson (2010) Aim: To investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. 2095 Asian Americans, 1271 first-generation immigrants who were 18+ when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents (Chinese, Filipino and Vietnamese) Semi-structured interviews either over the internet or face to face: cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample population. Interviews measured participants’ levels of acculturative stress + language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and socioeconomic status. 1433 of 2095 (70%) participants were found to have acculturative stress. 1. Bilingual language contributed to lower acculturative stress