Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Online Students' Performance: A Phenomenological Study, High school final essays of Mathematics

Download Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Online Students' Performance: A Phenomenological Study and more High school final essays Mathematics in PDF only on Docsity! Walden University ScholarWorks Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection 2018 The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Online University Students' Performance Maureen Cort-Blackson Walden University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations Part of the Quantitative Psychology Commons This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection at ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact ScholarWorks@waldenu.edu. Walden University College of Social and Behavioral Sciences This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by Maureen Cort-Blackson has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. Patti Barrows, Committee Chairperson, Psychology Faculty Dr. Elizabeth Clark, Committee Member, Psychology Faculty Dr. Robin Friedman, University Reviewer, Psychology Faculty Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D. Walden University 2018 The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Online University Students’ Performance by Maureen Cort-Blackson MA, Walden University, 2010 BS, University of Guyana, 1997 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology Walden University August 2018 Acknowledgments I would like to thank God for maintaining me with a healthy mind and body and increasing my patience and strength to complete this incredible journey. Thank you to my son, my three daughters, and my husband who provided me with encouragement to stay on the path to excellence. Thanks to my friends and family who encouraged me never to give up. I want to thank Dr. Pattie Barrows (Chair) who was always willing to help with resources available to see me through when it was difficult. Thanks to Dr. Elizabeth Clark (Committee Member) for her invaluable advice and suggestions that helped shape this study to its completion. Thanks to Dr. Robin Friedman (University Research Reviewer) for the time and knowledge that you have invested in my academic success. Thank you for your support and encouragement. i Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................1 Background ....................................................................................................................2 Problem Statement .........................................................................................................4 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................6 Central Research Question ...................................................................................... 6 Research Subquestions............................................................................................ 7 Conceptual Framework for the Study ............................................................................7 Nature of the Study ........................................................................................................9 Definitions....................................................................................................................11 Assumptions .................................................................................................................13 Scope and Delimitations ..............................................................................................14 Limitations ...................................................................................................................14 Significance..................................................................................................................15 Summary ......................................................................................................................16 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................18 Introduction ..................................................................................................................18 Literature Search Strategy............................................................................................18 iv Theme 1: Effects of Sleep Deprivation ................................................................. 68 Theme 2: Adjustments to Daily Lives .................................................................. 71 Theme 3: Factors Affecting Sleep Deprivation .................................................... 76 Theme 4: Impressions of Online Education.......................................................... 84 Evidence of Trustworthiness........................................................................................91 Credibility ............................................................................................................. 91 Transferability ....................................................................................................... 92 Dependability ........................................................................................................ 92 Confirmability ....................................................................................................... 93 Results ..........................................................................................................................94 Summary ......................................................................................................................96 Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations ............................................97 Introduction ..................................................................................................................97 Interpretation of the Research Findings .......................................................................98 Limitations of the Study.............................................................................................105 Recommendations ......................................................................................................107 Implications for Positive Social Change ....................................................................111 Conclusions ................................................................................................................112 References ........................................................................................................................117 Appendix A: Interview Questions and Probes .................................................................136 Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Letter ...................................................................139 v Research on “The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Online University Students’ Performance”: Participants needed. .....................................................................139 Appendix C: Researcher’s Sample Journal Entry ............................................................141 Appendix D: Member Checking ......................................................................................143 Appendix E: Expert Panel Invitation Letter .....................................................................144 vi List of Tables Table 1. Participant Demographics ................................................................................... 60 3 adjust their learning environment to be comfortable and stay focused. Adoption of a nontraditional learning environment may be unusual at the onset and present some challenges as students navigate a path of studying by themselves (Goodfellow & Lamy). In addition, it is not clear how specific phenomena such as distractions, family, and work- related duties affects the sleep patterns of online university students. Coveney (2014) asserted that there are very few qualitative empirical studies exploring the connection between an individual’s lifestyle, family responsibilities, and quality of sleep. The researcher conducted a quantitative study of 186 Canadian students that explained the importance of: (a) how sleep patterns adjust as students transition through their first year and (b) how extracurricular university life (e.g., distractions such as social media) contributes to inadequate sleep. Examining what online university students may find useful for enhancing sleep patterns was of the utmost importance. It was also necessary to explore how online university students increase their knowledge about the links between sleep deprivation and their academic performance. Online learning offer students flexibility letting them move through their assignments at their own pace. This is a new practice and as the growing sophistication of online learning progresses in the students’ homes it is important to understand how they balance work and home life and personal responsibilities with their studies. The circumstances that contribute to inadequate sleep may uncover truths about online university students’ perceptions. In-person university 4 students are reported to experience twice the amount of sleep difficulties as compared to the overall population (Gilbert & Weaver). Gilbert and Weaver found that adequate sleep is essential to support satisfactory awareness and performance of cognitive functions; however, dynamics such as family distractions and ambient temperature within the online student’s immediate surroundings may contribute to poor sleep quality. Finally, Ming et al. asserted that individuals spend a third of their lives sleeping; as such, sleep deprivation may contribute to concerns such as daytime sleepiness and reduced mental awareness. The social change implications of the results from this study will be used by online universities to create programs that may improve sleep patterns for students. The outcomes can also be used to revise the approach of diagnosing and analyzing students’ sleep patterns and provide information to reduce and prevent sleep deprivation. Problem Statement The phenomenon of sleep deprivation among online university students is understudied. In the review of the literature, I found that no researcher had identified the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. Galambos, Vargas Lascano, Howard, and Maggs (2013) argued that there is an absence of data to explain the importance of how sleep patterns adjust as students transition through the first year and how university life (e.g., stress, anxiety, distractions, and/or social media) help or hinder academic performance. Luo, Pan, Choi, Mellish, and Strobel (2011) also noted that there is no existing literature about how irregular sleeping patterns 5 and differences in sleeping patterns may affect online university students’ performance. Several researchers have investigated the phenomenon of sleep deprivation among adolescents, high school students, and in-person university students; however, no current studies focused on this issue among online university students (Tsui & Wing 2009). My goal with this study was to fill the gap in the literature by providing first-hand information about the specific phenomenon that describes how distractions, family, and work-related duties affect the sleep patterns of online university students. Results from this study will be beneficial for online universities because they can use them to create programs that may improve sleep patterns for students. Findings may add insight shedding light on the dynamics within the home environment and how students cope with their families, having a full time job and maintaining good academic standard. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. To address this issue, I conducted face-to-face interviews. The sample was drawn from the participant pool of an American-based, online university population consisting of graduate and undergraduate students. The selection of participants was carried out using purposive sampling to identify participants who met the requirements to inform the research question. Qualitative research allows for a study of participants’ full experience in a natural setting (Moustakas, 1994). In qualitative research, the goal is to describe experiences in 8 The human body’s internal timer generates the homeostatic sleep drive by creating pressure for sleep (Anjum et al.) This process is instinctive—the longer individuals stay awake, the greater the need for sleep arises and the higher the need for sleep becomes. On the other hand, the longer individuals have been asleep, the greater the pressure for sleep subsides and the larger the chance of awakening (Anjum et al.). Therefore, the homeostatic process can be perceived as the resting and oscillation period prior to wakefulness (Sutliffe). The circadian rhythm process can be described as the alerting system that tells the body when it is time to sleep and time to be awake (Sutliffe). The homeostasis process and the circadian rhythm process collaborate and support each other to promote restful sleep, which contributes to enhanced academic performance. Sutliffe’s explanation of the opponent processing model fit well with this phenomenological study. The opponent processing model relates to the understanding that an individual’s sleep pattern is related to the endogenous circadian rhythm (ECR) that directs the sleep-wake phase. The circadian rhythm is a self-sustaining, 24-hour cycle that is present in all aspects of human functioning and activities in the nervous system (Mattice, Brooks, & Lee Chiong 2012). More importantly, the ECR is the body’s inner clock that provides a signal and tells the body when it is sunrise and sunset (Mattice et al.). Sutliffe’s description of the opponent processing model is comparable to Urner, Tornic, and Bloch’s (2009) three conditions that shape sleep patterns, which are distractions, work and family responsibilities, and academic responsibilities. The circadian rhythm may be interrupted by students’ surroundings and may contribute to 9 sleep obstruction and an overall experience of decreased academic performance (Luo et al.). In this study, I examined the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students, looking at how specific phenomena such as distractions, social media, family, and work-related duties affects the sleep patterns of online university students. I also described students’ perceptions about ways they can enhance their sleep patterns and increase their knowledge about how sleep deprivation affects their academic performance. Nature of the Study I conducted this qualitative study using the phenomenological strategy of inquiry to describe the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. Phenomenological research was the method chosen because it provides information about the lived experiences and fundamentals of the phenomenon investigated (see Creswell). According to Creswell, phenomenological research is an investigative approach where the participants focus on describing their experiences about a unique phenomenon, and the researcher attempts to understand the participants’ views and the meaning they ascribe to their experiences. The bracketing of a researcher’s own involvement to understand the participants’ experiences and to eliminate assumptions is a fundamental component of phenomenological research (see Creswell). The process entails studying a small number of participants and developing themes that can relate to the meaning of the participants’ stories. I conducted individual, face-to-face in-depth 10 interviews with students in a private room in their home via Skype to explore their experiences with sleep deprivation. Participants were deemed eligible for the study and selected based on the inclusion criteria. The first inclusion criterion was that students must be living in the United States. Participants for this study also had to be active online university students. The sample was drawn from the participant pool of a large, American-based, online university population consisting of graduate and undergraduate students. I selected participants for this study using purposive sampling, which entailed checking the student’s information to make sure that they met the inclusion criterion before they were considered eligible to participate in the study. For phenomenological research, Patton (1990) recommended purposive sampling, which is one of the distinctive elements of qualitative research. I invited participants to relate their stories through the medium of face-to-face interviews while providing information from their life experiences. The narration of their stories started from the beginning, moved to the middle, then to the end—thus, making it significant (see Seidman,). Participants provided a detailed account of the phenomenon with thick, rich descriptions of their experiences. I then analyzed the data using Moustakas’s modification of the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen method of analysis for phenomenological data. The transcendental framework I used for analysis was based on the notion of putting aside all biases (epoché) to see the phenomenon plainly (see Moustakas). 13 hours during a 24-hour period. In their study on sleep deprivation, Garaulet et al. stated that sleep deprivation is having less than 8 hours of sleep per night, as defined by the National Sleep Foundation. For the purpose of this study, it was helpful to implement a definition that included components of the definitions listed above. Borrowing from the definitions of Wesensten Sweileh et al. and Garaulet et al. I included terminologies from the medical, educational, and sports perspectives. For the purposes of this study, sleep deprivation among online university students was defined as the act of engaging in less than 8 hours of sleep within 24 hours, which is needed to fulfill educational and job-related responsibilities. Assumptions My first assumption in this study was that participants would be cooperative and honest in their responses to interview questions. Second, I assumed that the central research question was in fact targeting and assessing the effects of sleep deprivation among online university students, which was consistent with the research subquestions. I also assumed that the participants would be able to describe the effects of sleep deprivation on their academic performance as online university students. Face-to-face interviews were designed to capture the first-hand experience of sleep deprivation for students; however, because of the small sample size, the findings may not be used to make inferences to other online university populations in other locations universally. The 14 results of this study only represent the perceptions of a sample of one particular online student population. Scope and Delimitations In this study, I focused on sleep deprivation among online university students in a particular online university. Because of the nature of this phenomenological study, only students from a specific online university were candidates for the study. Nevertheless, instructors, students, and individuals in the overall online school community will benefit from the results of this study. The scope of this study was to allow participants to describe their lived experiences in their natural settings. Limitations One of the limitations of this study was that it included a small number of participants and cannot be assumed to be representative of the larger population. Creswell (2009) suggested that a sample size for a qualitative study could be as few as five and as many as 25. The range I chose for this study was between seven and 10. According to Moustakas a small number of cases facilitates the researcher’s close connection with the participants and boosts the validity of the in-depth inquiry in their naturalistic settings. Because this was a qualitative study, this research was limited to interpretation instead of quantitative analysis. This means that readers can form their own interpretations of what this study signified. Readers can also look at the data and construct their own version of what the results mean (Bloomberg & Volpe 2012). 15 Another limitation was that the participants’ responses were affected by my presence during the interview and data collection process. Participants were made aware of my own status as an online university student. Even though I was aware of my own bias, the participants provided responses based on their own lived experiences as online university students. Moustakas stated the importance of a researcher being aware of their own biases to understand the participants’ experiences as neutrally as possible. Moreover, the results of this study only represent participants from one particular online university. As such, the results are not generalizable. Finally, I did not take other variables, such as financial difficulties, family conflicts, and family members’ ongoing medical conditions, that may have contributed to sleep deprivation and affected students’ academic achievement into account in this study. Significance This study is significant because online universities are rapidly evolving and gaining popularity. Particularly important is that online education is designed so that students can have flexible schedules and locations. Researchers, such as Reid and Baker (2008), have theorized that students who practice poor sleep patterns are more likely to engage in daytime sleepiness and daytime napping. According to Rico, Sánchez- Manzanares, Antino, and Lau (2012), students who get 8 hours of sleep per night are more likely to maintain a regular academic pattern and start their academic work at the beginning of the week, study during the day, and remain alert and focused. 18 Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. I examined specific phenomena that affect students’ academic performances, such as distractions, social media, family, work- related responsibilities, and sleep patterns. Online learning is an emerging trend in modern-day education (Westerfelt, 2011). Many researchers (i.e., Asaoka, et al. Couyoumdjian et al.; Field, Diego, Pelaez, Deeds, & Delgado, 2012; Nadeem, Ali, Maqbool, & Zaida, 2012) have published literature on sleep deprivation, noting that it negatively impacts university students’ academic performance. The general argument in the literature is that adequate sleep is an important component in the overall health and well-being of individuals. However, in this review of the literature, I found that no researcher had identified the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students specifically. In this chapter, I will provide an overview and description of the conceptual framework and a review of the relevant literature. Literature Search Strategy In an effort to ensure that this literature review was all-encompassing, I accessed Walden University’s online library databases using the Search and Find function to carry out Thoreau’s search of multiple databases and Thoreau’s advanced search of multiple databases. The advanced feature allowed me to explore a collection of articles from PsyArticles, Academic Search Complete, ProQuest, Med-Line, Sage Publications, 19 SocINDEX, PsyINFO, and all dissertations. The primary search terms I used included sleep, deprivation, university, online degree, students, recall, information, anxiety and fatigue, task switching, nightmares, personal failures, academic performance, in-person students, and stress. Noticeable during this literature review was the lack of research on sleep deprivation among online university students. The majority of articles were focused on adolescents, high school students, and in-person college students. Conceptual Framework I based the conceptual framework for this study on Sutliffe’s opponent processing model. The opponent processing model allows researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of sleep deprivation. According to Sutliffe, the opponent processing model dictates that there are two basic procedures responsible for individuals functioning at their optimum ability: the sleep-wake homeostatic process and the circadian rhythm process. The sleep-wake homeostatic process is what happens when individuals naturally feel the urge to sleep (Luo et al.). Pfeffer, Rauch, Korf, and von Gall (2012) stated that the circadian rhythm is a self-sustaining 24-hour cycle. This ongoing 24-hour cycle is present in all aspects of human functioning, including the nervous system that supports an individual’s ability to maintain academic function. Sutliffe’s opponent processing model is based on the premise that the homeostatic process determines the interface in the circadian process by making an assessment of the time to sleep and time to be awake. 20 With the opponent processing model, Sutliffe suggested that when humans function to their optimum ability, they are alert and focused. Pfeffer et al. described the ECR as the human body’s internal clock that provides a signal and tells the body when to sleep and when to be awake. There are certain actions that can cause the circadian rhythm to be affected. Notably, Luo et al. stated that the circadian rhythm can be disrupted by the student’s surroundings, family responsibilities, and distractions. Sleep obstruction and an overall feeling of inefficiency in academic performance are notable when the circadian rhythm is interrupted (Pfeffer et al,) In support of the logic of Luo et al., Garcia, Ramirez, Martinez, and Valdez (2012) explained that any change in the circadian rhythm affects the realization of academic tasks, including memory and cognition. Garcia et al. conducted a study of eight students aged 17 to 46 years to examine fluctuation in the executive function. All the participants in their study were healthy students who attended classes daily and were free of sleep disorders. The researchers found that fewer distractions during the night and early morning contributed to increased alertness, accurate decision-making, and acceptable problem-solving. Results from their study supported the belief that changes in the circadian rhythm affect basic functions such as attention, working memory, decision-making, and problem-solving. In a breakthrough study, Sutliffe stated that the opponent processing model explained that the sleep-wake action can be identified through (a) the connections between the physiological structure, (b) the conflicting struggle of the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus, and (c) the process of regulating the sleep-wake cycle with 23 attending the class online. The 1,071 participants of their study were 625 students who attended an online introductory psychology course and those who attended the same course but in a face-to-face setting (446 students). Each group completed an online questionnaire survey. The researchers found that students who attended the online classes were more likely to experience disruptions in their sleep patterns; however, students who attended the face-to-face classes maintained regularity in their sleep patterns during the night and experienced a better quality of rest. Jovanovski and Bassili determined that distractions trigger decreased memory functions, which contribute to a decline in cognitive processes and poor academic performance. Drummond, Anderson, Straus, Vogel, and Perez (2012) conducted a study that aimed to determine the extent to which memory is affected by sleep deprivation. Forty- four participants were involved in their study to explore how one night of total sleep deprivation and four nights of partial sleep deprivation affected parts of the visual working memory. The researchers found that that one night of total sleep deprivation and four nights of partial sleep deprivation had no impact on memory; however, total sleep deprivation did affect recall of information. Moreover, the researchers revealed that sleep deprivation affects memory and cognition (Drummond et al.). Neubauer (2009) explored the relationship between the process of declarative and procedural memory, stating that the former works to retrieve information that is legitimate and detailed, while the latter is responsible for a person’s movements, lifestyles, and customs. Neubauer discussed the various stages of the memory process 24 that respond to adequate or inadequate sleep and explained that forgetfulness is a usual concern of individuals who experience inadequate sleep, even if it is as a result of sleep deprivation from an extremely busy schedule or from a medical condition. As such, individuals find it challenging to absorb and recall information when they are unable to achieve adequate sleep on a nightly basis. Other researchers, like Turner, Drummond, Salamat, and Brown (2007), found that working memory is limited following sleep deprivation. Working memory is the ability to retain information in the mind for a period of time (Turner et al.). Individuals can experience a decline in cognitive functioning when sleep deprived (Neubauer) .The researchers specified that one important task of short-term working memory is to conserve and initiate necessary information. An earlier study conducted by Drummond et al. highlighted the fact that inadequate sleep also contributes to weakening the performance of the filtering process. The two studies make it clear that sleep deprivation affects working memory. According to Lehman and Conceição (2014), online education necessitates similar mental and adaptive processes in contrast to in-person education; however, the online student requires an increased cognitive effort to maintain intellectual alertness. The in- person students communicate with their instructors, who provide the human touch and appeal to the student’s senses (Lehman & Conceição,). Researchers such as Reid and Baker (2008) have theorized that the challenges of attending school online are inevitable. Unlike the educational setting of the traditional physical learning environment, Hauser, 25 Paul, Bradley and Jeffrey (2012) stated that there is noticeably limited direct contact with professors and colleagues in the online context. Poor sleep quality and changing patterns of sleep affect in-person university students’ performance and cause them to become more anxious about their quality of work (Van Gundy, Morton, Liu, & Kline, 2006). Merikanto, Lahti, Puusniekka, and Partonen (2013) declared that sleep deprivation among in-person university students and high school students affects their sleeping patterns. In addition to having an impact on cognitive tasks, in-person students suffering from sleep deprivation experience fatigue and tiredness that may make it challenging for them to perform optimally (Merikanto et al.). Reid and Baker argued that the in-person students function in a classroom environment where the psychological and physical dynamics contribute to academic achievement. Reid and Baker explained that the struggles experienced by online university students differ from students attending onsite universities. Hill and Epps (2010) conducted research on onsite students, finding that in the physical classroom environment, students benefit from adequate lighting, individual computers, classroom technology, temperature control, and tiered seating that positively impact their overall performance. Likewise, in-person students enjoy the socio-emotional support and affection from others, along with advice and information from their peers and instructors (Davis 2007). 28 person university students participate in various media-related activities that curtail their sleep. The results indicated that the participants still had the desire to be involved in TV and Internet activities before bedtime, even though there was a notable reduction in sleep time. In fact, Suganuma et al. found that in addition to sleep loss, Internet users encounter other difficulties like poor quality of sleep long after the first use of Internet activities. Similarly, Shochat, Flint-Bretler, and Tzischinsky (2010) pointed out that electronic media contributes to a shift in sleep patterns, triggers distractions, and makes it challenging for students to maintain a customary bedtime. Couyoumdjian et al. found that forgetting what one was doing prior to interruption may be an everyday problem for individuals who encounter disruption in their online environment. Given the new phenomenon of social media, it becomes critical to understand how distractions and social media affect the sleep patterns of online university students since no researchers have investigated this new phenomenon. Several studies, while focused on sleep deprivation, have provided awareness about the dynamics of distractions and social media. Presently, the use of technology and how it affects sleep patterns is an issue that has gained attention in the literature. Cheung and Wong (2011) conducted a study to assess Internet use patterns and the inability to sleep soundly. The participants of their study were 719 students who participated in a school-based cross- sectional study and completed the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index Questionnaire. Results from the study showed that Internet enthusiasts experienced longer durations of sleep, 29 decreased sleep efficiency, inferior quality of sleep, increased sleep disruption, and daytime tiredness. Jugovac and Cavallero (2012) studied how 24 hours of sleep deprivation hinders attention and sleep patterns. The researchers found that there was an overall decrease in response times and a notable reduction in accuracy as a result of sleep deprivation. The participants were 30 individuals who completed the Attention Network Test after experiencing two different sleep conditions: a usual night of sleep and being awake for 24 hours. Couyoumdjian et al. explained the difficulty of achieving optimal functioning when faced with outward or even inner distractions: “Real-world decision-making can occur in unique and unfamiliar circumstances, requiring an extensive range of complex skills such as anticipating consequences, keeping track of events, being innovative and avoiding distractions and irrelevant stimuli” (p. 64). Family and Work-Related Responsibilities Jovanovski and Bassili (2007) emphasized that university students include family and work responsibilities in their schedule. Cramming and staying up extended hours at night to complete work is customary among university students (Eun 2012). As Drummond et al. hypothesized, the only way to maximize an individual’s ability to encode and recall information is to get adequate sleep and refrain from filing information into the brain for one-time retrieval. In their quantitative study, Blaivas et al. explored common sources of sleep deprivation and found that micro-sleep may be the real explanation for sleepiness. Microsleep, according to Blaivas et al. is the uncontrollable 30 urge to nod off during the day with an apparent struggle to stay awake. The researchers conducted this study to establish a scale for microsleep. They determined that the proportion of naps in individuals reporting difficulties was 64%, as compared with 60% in those without concerns. In a similar study, Tirunahari, Zaidi, Sharma, Skurnick and Ashtyani (2003) had 92 participants participate in a sleep latency test to analyze their level of excessive daytime sleepiness. The aim was to investigate if the change from wakefulness to sleep and back to wakefulness negatively affects the smooth functioning of cognitive actions. The researchers determined that individuals who experienced microsleep faced increased lapses in thinking and were more likely to have memory deficits. Freedom (2011) hypothesized that excessive daytime sleepiness occurs when an individual experiences transitory periods of three or additional seconds of intervals of sleep. The writer stated that in extreme cases, the consequences of excessive daytime sleepiness can include thoughtless behavior, like ongoing strained discussions, overeating, and yelling at others for no apparent reason (Han, 2012). Moreover, poor sleep habits and insufficient sleep encourage frequent napping during the day, which quickly affects individual’s mood and obstructs daily family activities (Reid & Baker, 2008). Most university students have to attend to work and family responsibilities in addition to fulfilling their student obligations (Asaoka et al.). In a qualitative study, Orzech (2013) examined adolescents’ perceptions of healthy sleep patterns while performing various roles. The sample was 51 students, and the researcher created a bio- 33 sleeping patterns and distractions also have adverse effects on the components of the executive control processes that affect performance (Couyoumdjian et al.). Summary and Conclusions Sleep deprivation among online university students is a pervasive phenomenon and affects students’ life adversely. The literature review for this study has provided an overview of sleep deprivation from the university students’ perspective. Each segment of the review emphasized the effects and consequences of sleep deprivation as researched in the literature. Jovanovski and Bassili’s (2007) research determined that distractions trigger decreased memory functions, which contribute to reduced cognitive processes and poor academic performance. They also demonstrated that students attending online classes were most likely to experience disruption in their sleep patterns. The greatest argument that resulted from their study is that sleep deprivation interrupts the smooth functioning of the body’s internal clock that rotates every 24 hours. Given the gaps in the literature, the following conclusions may or may not be appropriate as related to the effects of sleep deprivation among online university students. First, several researchers (Asaoka et al., 2010; Nadeem et al., 2012; Shochat et al., 2010) explored the sleep patterns and effects of sleep deprivation among college and university students. Various writers (Field et al., 2012; Nadeem et al., 2012; Orsal, Orsal, Alparslan, & Unsal, 2012; Shochat et al., 2010) have found that inadequate sleep among university students leads to anxiety, fatigue, daytime sleepiness, poor academic performance, and increased level of stress. Second, other researchers (Orsal et al., 2012; 34 Subramanian & Surani, 2007; Sweileh et al., 2011) have presented different definitions of sleep deprivation. However, a shared definition of the term sleep deprivation among online university students is nonexistent. As a result, it has become difficult to quantify the term to utilize it as a guide for online university students. Third, it is apparent that there is a need for research on the effects of sleep deprivation on online university students because of the increased popularity of online education. Finally, an overview of Sutliffe’s opponent processing model was presented to gain a deeper awareness of the sleep-wake cycle. In the review of the literature, it was found that no researcher has identified the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. Additional research is needed to understand this phenomenon. The information obtained from this study will shed light on this issue and will hopefully be used as a tool to enhance the lives of online university students. In Chapter 3, I will present the research design and rationale, the role of the researcher and the methodology. 35 Chapter 3: Research Method Introduction The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. Several phenomena explained how sleep deprivation influenced online university students’ performance. Even though researchers have documented the significance of adequate sleep to enhance total well-being, no previous research had focused on the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. My intent with this study was to investigate how the phenomena of distractions, family, and work- related duties impacted the sleep patterns of online university students. Another aim of this study was to understand what online university students find useful for enhancing their sleep patterns. Lastly, the results of this study provide useful information about how online university students can increase their knowledge about how sleep deprivation affects their academic performance. In this chapter, I will provide the framework for the methodology and describe the phenomenological method, the research design and rationale, the role of the researcher, and participant selection logic. This chapter will also include the instrumentation, procedures for recruitment and participation, data collection, and data analysis plan. Finally, the issues of trustworthiness, transferability, dependability, conformability, and ethical procedures will be discussed. 38 Role of the Researcher According to Marshall and Rossman (2011), the researcher’s participation is essential for successful interaction and communication with the participants. They stated that “the researcher is the instrument” (Marshall & Rossman p. 72). Furthermore, the researcher is the avenue through which all information is collected and analyzed, so it is important that the researcher experience and understand the phenomenon. Stake (2010) addressed the significance of a researcher being aware of their own personal biases and cautioned the researcher to be objective as possible while interviewing the participants. Creswell used the term bracketing to address this process, which means a researcher reversing their knowledge and understanding to avoid influencing the participants’ perception of the phenomenon. Similarly, Moustakas emphasized the importance of a researcher being aware of their biases to understand the participants’ experience as neutrally as possible. Moustakas used the term epoché, which means being aware of personal judgment and approaching things in normal, ordinary ways. According to Moustakas, epoché is necessary because it allows the researcher to set apart their perceptions and observe the phenomenon from the participants’ point of view. I addressed the importance of epoché during the data collection phase of this study. Participant Selection Logic Seidman (2006) suggested that “the range of people from which participants are selected should be fair to the greater population” (p. 53). Two criteria determine how 39 many participants are enough. The first is sufficiency, and this requires the researcher to consider if there are adequate participants to reflect the range of experience. The second is saturation of information, and this is when the interviewer begins to hear the same information reported (see Seidman, 2006). According to Seidman, sufficiency is achieved when there are enough participants who have reached all the inclusion criteria to participate in the study. To determine if the participants met the criteria, I screened them before the face-to-face interview to gather details their current status as students, whether they were enrolled in graduate or undergraduate programs, and if they had a job and family responsibilities. Saturation Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (2006) stated that saturation is most often achieved after interviewing 12 participants who are reporting on the same phenomenon. Seidman argued that saturation is identified when a researcher begins to hear the same information over and over again and is no longer learning anything new. Saturation is also reached when interviewing additional participants does not yield any new themes (Beune, Haafkens, Agyemang, & Bindels, 2010). Suri (2011) asserted that purposive sampling raises the probability of attaining saturation. For this study, I detected saturation when I began to hear repetitive information. According to Guest et al. to raise the chances of reaching data saturation, the interview process should include fairly homogeneous participants. 40 Creswell wrote that a sample size for a qualitative study can be as few as five and as many as 25 participants. Echoing the opinion of Seidman, Ong, Chua, and Ng (2014) noted that studies with in-depth interviews necessitate fewer participants. Seidman further recommended that it is better to err on the side of more participants than fewer because it is quite difficult to assess the number of participants in advance. I drew the sample for this study from the participant pool of a large, American-based, online university population consisting of graduate and undergraduate students and chose 10 as the number of participants for this study. Specific demographics of the sample will be detailed in Chapter 4. Sampling Patton (1990) reported that purposive sampling is the most logical choice for qualitative studies. Seidman stated that purposive sampling allows for choosing information-rich cases extensively; additionally, it is a powerful source for gaining insight and an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon, as opposed to studies that rely on theories and experiments. Purposive sampling allows the researcher to identify all participants in a study who meet the criteria and choose only those participants to be part of the study (Seidman). Purposive sampling is appropriate when all participants studied are individuals experiencing the same phenomenon (see Seidman, 2006). This method allows selected participants to accentuate the research questions and provide rich information and insight into the phenomenon studied. 43 questions allow the interviewer to fill the gap where the participants appear to have given limited responses. Procedures for Recruitment and Participation The sample for this study was drawn from the participant pool of a large, American-based, online university population consisting of undergraduate and graduate students. Specific demographics for the sample are detailed in Chapter 4. A follow-up plan was put into place in case enough students did not respond to the advertisements about this study. The method to recruit additional participants, if needed, was snowball sampling. According to Bloomberg and Volpe, snowball sampling is a method that leads to circulation about a study from a small group spreading to a bigger population. Therefore, students who were already contacted were asked to spread the word and refer other students to assess additional participants needed, hence the snowball effect. Interviewing was the strategy used for this phenomenological study. As posited by Newington and Metcalfe (2014), interviewing is a lively procedure that encourages participants to tell their stories with a detailed background. Wright, Heathcote and Wibberley (2014) wrote that the discourse is understood as a dialogue and proposes an equal status for the interviewer and the interviewee. A description of the study was advertised in the Participant Pool, which acts as a bulletin board. The study advertisement was made visible to all students, and only participants who met the inclusion criteria contacted me. The advertisement included specific inclusion criteria. The advertisement letter included my contact information (e- 44 mail and phone number) and clearly stated how interested students could contact me. The participant recruitment letter is reproduced in Appendix C. Once the participants read the bulletin board and decided that they met the criteria to be a participant of this study, they contacted me either via a phone call or an e-mail and I started the screening process. I responded to the prospective participant and discussed the inclusion criteria to ensure that they were qualified to participate in the study. I summarized the informed consent process and the nature of the study. I asked for their phone number, their e-mail address, and mailing address, and documented this information in a notebook or Excel spreadsheet. Next, the prospective participants were informed that they would receive an informed consent form via e-mail to review prior to the interview. After one week, I contacted the participants via phone to find out if they had received and reviewed the inform consent form and scheduled the interview. The Walden University Institutional Review Board approval number for this study -was 09- 27-16-0148715. Data Collection In the preliminary meeting with each prospective participant, I reviewed the consent form, underscoring that the interviews would be audio-taped to guarantee the reliability of data collection. After the interviews were completed, I listened to the tape recordings, compared the transcripts to the recordings, and compiled a summary of the interview, which was to the participants for member checking. The participants were made aware that they could ask any questions about the informed consent. Further, they 45 were notified that their signature was required before the interview to confirm their willingness to be participants. One of the goals of research interviews is for the researcher to gain a rational understanding of an individual’s views. Participants will be educated about the phenomenon, while lecturers and interested professional individuals will be more informed (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). The interviews lasted from 1.5 to 2 hours and asked questions listed in Appendix A. The interview questions were specifically designed to capture the participants’ lived experiences. The questions were open-ended and asked about factors within the home environment that impacted the sleep patterns of online university students. Semistructured and probe questions were developed to prompt certain areas of the experiences of sleep deprivation among online university students. The interview process was captured on audio tape to ensure accurate and complete data. After listening to the tape recordings, I compared the transcripts to the recordings and compiled a summary of the interview. I also took notes during the interviews to document all non-verbal cues. At the ends of the interviews, all participants were debriefed. They were allowed to divulge any questions, opinions, uncertainties, or distress. They were reinformed about their right to withdraw, about confidentiality issues, and thanked for their time. The debriefing period was used to detect the participants’ experience about the interview process. At the end of the interview, confirmation was made through member checking. Creswell wrote that “member checking adjusts the research findings by returning the 48 My preconceptions about sleep deprivation and online university students were created during my experience as an online university student who has a full-time job, family responsibilities, and is attending school online. My biases subsequent to conducting this study include the following: • The majority of online university students experience sleep deprivation and they are unaware of it. • Online university students are engaged in schoolwork the majority of their time during the 24-hour schedule. • Sleep deprivation among online university students is increasing and it seems likely that it is not a major concern in their lives while in school. The full epoché can be found in Appendix D. At the listing and preliminary grouping stage, I read the transcripts to gain an awareness of the views and opinions of the participants. During the reading process, I highlighted significant statements, which are, according to Moustakas those that describe the experiences of the individuals. These statements provided information about the students’ sleeping patterns, social media, family, and work-related duties. The significant statements were recorded on an Excel spreadsheet and coded according to meaning. Duplicate statements were identified. The data analysis phase involves identifying significant statements, described as “horizonalization” (Moustakas). In the reduction and elimination stage, I read the transcripts repeatedly to identify and review expressions presented by the participants. Overlapping, repeated, and 49 ambiguous expressions were removed or presented in more direct terms. Expressions that were deemed to be relevant were identified by a color code, because they were related to the phenomena studied. Whatever information was left was significant and formed the core information to group as themes. The themes for this study emerged from the core of the discussions. However, students’ understandings of how sleep deprivation affects their academic performance varied, and this difference was retained. Clustering and thematizing, as recommended by Moustakas allowed me to highlight significant statements from the participants’ experience and develop themes. Thomas and Harden (2008) suggested that thematic analysis of qualitative data involves three stages: the coding of text, developing descriptive themes, and generating analytical themes. The interview questions evolved from these codes and formed the basis for the data during the interview. The theme of distractions was aligned with Questions 1 and 2, the theme of academic responsibilities was aligned with Question 3, and the themes of work and family responsibilities and information to enhance sleep patterns were aligned with Questions 4 and 5. As such, Theme 1 emerged from the first two questions, Theme 2 emerged from the third question, and Theme 3 emerged from the fourth and fifth questions. The clusters were labeled and form the themes of this research study. For example, statements about distractions were identified and placed under Theme 1. Statements about academic responsibilities were placed under Theme 2. The data for this study were displayed according to the major elements in the conceptual framework related to sleep deprivation. 50 The final stage consisted of identifying the invariant constituents and themes by application. According to Moustakas, cluster and invariant/labeled constituents are the core themes of the experience. These labeled themes were the central themes of the online university students’ experience. This stage entailed checking the identified theme against each participant’s significant response. The purpose of checking was to find out if the responses were expressed clearly and explicitly in the transcript. Responses that were found to be inaudible, incomplete, unrelated, or irrelevant to the participant’s experience were omitted. Individual textural description, according to Moustakas is described as documenting each participant’s experience verbatim from the interview. This process provided a verbatim description of words, sentences, and phrases that allowed me to extract deeper meaning from that particular individual’s experience. Providing a structural description of the experience ensured a transparent summary of how the phenomenon was experienced by the participant. I attached meaning to the essence of the participants’ lived experiences. At this stage, I had the opportunity to examine or view the phenomenon from various angles and seek the meaning of the experience without bias. I chose the pen-and-pencil method to initially analyze the data, group them into themes, and used the NVivo software to complete the analysis. The objective of this study was to present the experiences of the participants. However, one participant’s experiences varied from the other cases. After analyzing the varied experience, it was considered to be a discrepant case. I searched for any elements in the data that did not support, or seemed to dispute, the descriptions emerging from the 53 similar population. A thick and rich description of the contextual factors was provided. As such, readers have the option to make a comparison and determine the extent to which the results can be transferred to other situations. For the purpose of this research, member checking, triangulation, and providing a thick, rich description was used to verify the research findings. Creswell reported that a thick, rich description takes the reader into the scenery being described and adds background history to the total experience. Nikander suggested that verbatim transcription enhances a valid description and reduces erroneous data in addition to the use of cautious sampling, triangulation, and auditing methods. Dependability Dependability requires that the findings of the study be consistent so that it could be repeated by other scholars with the aim of repeating the results (Shenton). In addressing dependability for this study, this chapter has included a detailed description of the research design and how it was implemented. Additionally, the data gathering process was presented explicitly in the methodology section. The research questions were well thought out from the beginning, allowing me to continue sampling until the research questions were answered fully. Given the many audits and revisions that lead to the data analysis, it was necessary to maintain accurate documentation to trace the course of the research process step-by-step (Finfgeld‐Connett, 2010). Documentation for this study included comprehensive notes and research memos about the findings and analysis of the study. 54 Confirmability Vivar, McQueen, Whyte, and Armayor (2007) wrote that confirmability relates to the objectivity of the data collected. For this study, I provided transcripts with detailed descriptions that establish the significance of the experiences. After listening to the tape recordings, I compared the transcripts to the recordings and compiled a summary of the interviews. I transcribed the interviews verbatim within 2weeks. This schedule was reasonable to allow for sufficient time to analyze and transcribe the audiotapes before e- mailing a summary to the participants for member checking. I described how the study was completed and was aware of any concerns that may have arisen from the study. According to Kingdon, O’Donnell, Givens, and Turner (2015), reflexivity is the method related to the researcher’s recognition of how her own experience and background can influence and alter the research she conducts. Therefore, the reader of the final product can measure the degree to which the researcher’s prior understanding may have influenced the research design, data collection, and understanding of the study. Steps were put in place to ensure that the findings accurately represent the direct ideas of the participants rather than my personal opinions. Because I am considered part of the research tool, the credibility of the study rests on me (Kingdon et al.). Ethical Procedures Lakeman, McAndrew, Macgabhann, and Warne (2013) advised researchers to take care to minimize harm to participants. However, it is sometimes challenging to preemptively predict the ethical concerns and risks that may arise in qualitative research 55 (Lakeman et al.). All participants of this study were adult male or female volunteers able to make informed decisions. As such, this study did not pose any risk to the participants’ health and well-being. The Instutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained before the data were collected. Walden University’s approval number for this study is 09-27-16- 0148715, and its expiration date was September 26, 2017. All data have been stored for the specified length of time in a locked location that was available only to me and was protected from inclement weather. The transcripts were stored electronically in Microsoft Word to help in easy retrieval and back-up. Folders were labeled to help manage and organize the themes related to the study. The folders aided in storing the information in Word and Excel in an orderly manner. Similarly, separate, pertinent information related to aliases used in identifying participants has been stored safely. All electronic files and related documents will be destroyed after a period of 5years. Seidman explained that informed consent is essential because there is no guarantee as to how the participants may respond to unanticipated sensitive issues that may occur during the interview process. Participants were given the option to withdraw at any time if they were not comfortable with the interview process. The informed consent form guaranteeing confidentiality was signed by the University Review Reviewer (URR). The informed consent agreement for this study described: (a) the background of the study, (b) the voluntary nature of participation, (c) a clear statement that the participant could opt out of the study at any point, (d) the planned data collection procedures, (e) the expected time commitment from the participant, (f) a statement about 58 Chapter 4: Results Introduction In this chapter, I will present my analysis of the data collected for this study. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to develop a deep understanding of the participants’ experiences in order to describe the effects of sleep deprivation on the academic performance of online university students. I will briefly review the purpose of the study, the research questions, and then discuss the setting. Following these sections, I will discuss the participants’ demographics, data collection, data analysis, and evidence of trustworthiness. Lastly, I will present the results and conclude the chapter with a summary. This phenomenological study involved face-to-face interviews with the 10 participants that I conducted via Skype. The sample was drawn from the participant pool of an American-based, online university population consisting of graduate and undergraduate students. Several researchers, such as Jovanovski and Bassili have investigated the challenges to optimal functioning when sleep-deprived, particularly as this relates to academic performance among students. What had not yet been explored was how sleep deprivation affects online university students’ performance. The results of this study fill that void in the literature to better understand online university students’ experience of how sleep deprivation affects their academic performance. 59 Setting The setting of the study was varied by the choice of the participants. I interviewed the participants in the setting that was most comfortable to them because all the interviews were conducted via Skype. There were no obvious changes in personal or organizational conditions that influenced the participants or their experiences at the time the study was conducted. None of the participants mentioned any personal conditions before or during the interview. Demographics of Participants The participants in this study were 10 online university students (six women and four men) who were married, with full-time jobs, and family responsibilities. One participant attributed having adequate sleep to spousal support. Seven participants stated that they did not get adequate sleep because of ongoing family and job responsibilities, while two participants mentioned that their inadequate sleep was due to family and school responsibilities. Table 1 shows the demographics of the participants. 60 Table 1 Participant Demographics Participant Gender Adequate sleep Reasons for adequate or inadequate sleep Fin M No Family and job Ada F No Family and job Sia F No Family and school Wyn M Yes Spouse support Sue F No Family and job Deb F No Family and job Liz F No Family and school Mia F No Family and job Kev M No Family and job Sid M No Family and job At the time of the study, the 10 participants I interviewed were all registered active students at an American-based online university and resided in the United States. I provided all participants with aliases to protect their identities, and each was screened to determine their eligibility for the study. In the following subsections, I will provide descriptions of the participants. 63 contacted two of the participants who were recruited via the university Participant Pool and asked if they could spread the word and refer other students. Deb was one of the students that resulted from that effort and contacted me via phone to indicate that she would like to volunteer to be a participant. The screening process was conducted, and Deb possessed the requirements to be a participant. Deb resided in the northwestern United States and chose the Skype interview because of distance. Liz Liz was recruited via the snowball sampling method (see Bloomberg & Volpe). She contacted me via phone and said she heard about my study and visited the university, Participant Pool’s website. After the screening process was completed, Liz was deemed a suitable candidate for the study. Liz was a registered female student at an American- based online university. She was a full-time employee and had a family and multiple family responsibilities. Liz resided in the northeastern United States and chose the Skype interview due to convenience. Mia Mia was a current female student of an American-based online university, and was recruited via the University Participant Pool’s website. Mia contacted me via phone and volunteered to participate in my study. Mia was considered qualified to be a participant after completion of the screen process. She resided in northwestern United States and agreed to be interviewed via Skype because of her location. She had a family, family responsibilities, and worked full-time. 64 Ken Ken was recruited via an American-based online university Participant Pool’s website. Ken contacted me via e-mail and indicated that he was interested in participating in my study. After the screening process was completed, Ken was considered a suitable candidate for the study. Ken was a registered full time male student at an the American-based online university. He had a family and family responsibilities. Ken resided in the southern United States and chose the Skype interview due to his location. Sid Sid was recruited via the snowball sampling method. Sid contacted me via phone and indicated that he heard about my study and would like to participate. Sid was deemed a suitable candidate for my study after completing the screen process. Sid had a family and multiple family responsibilities, and worked full time. Sid resided in the southern United States and chose the Skype interview because of his location. Data Collection From December 4, 2016 through April 15, 2017, I interviewed a total of 10 participants using the interview questions in Appendix A. After completing the screening process, I e-mailed the informed consent forms to each participant, asking them to read, sign, and return the forms. During the screening process, the participants were notified that they could ask me any questions about the informed consent. The participants were informed during the screening process that their signature was required before the 65 interviews to confirm their willingness to be participants. The participants were given the choice to be interviewed face-to-face or via Skype. All 10 interviews occurred via Skype, and the interviews were recorded on a Skype digital V2.6.1 call recorder. I conducted all the interviews in a private room in my home. The interviews took place at a time and date that suited the participants. This was vital because the well-being and privacy of the participants is crucial when discussing intimate experiences (Suzuki, Ahluwalia, Arora, & Mattis, 2007). Although the interviews were being recorded, I kept written notes in case of a technological failure and made observations regarding body language. The interviews varied in duration, with the longest lasting for 1.5 hours and the shortest lasting for 1 hour. Because there were no consecutive interviews, I had enough time to transcribe the interviews between appointments. I transcribed the interviews by listening intently, then pausing the device, followed by typing the information into a Microsoft Word document. The transcribed interviews were shared with my chair and stored on my computer to help with easy retrieval and back-up. Each participant’s transcript was labeled and kept in a folder to help in managing and organizing the data. All participants were provided with a pseudonym to protect their identity. Variations in the plan I presented in Chapter 3 involved data collection. The initial review of the interview protocol was completed by a panel of two experts. The feedback from the panel was useful in creating the interview questions so they were clear and all- inclusive for use with the selected sample of 10 participants who were full-time students, 68 (codes) connected to each research question. Clustering and thematizing as recommended by Moustakas allowed me to highlight significant statements from the participants’ experiences and develop themes. The invariant constituents were clustered according to their similarities and validated across the 10 participants to create and develop the themes associated with the research questions. Lastly, I compiled a narrative of the phenomenon as experienced by the 10 participants by using their direct responses to each research question. Four themes emerged from the data analysis: • Theme 1: Effects of sleep deprivation • Theme 2: Adjustment to daily lives • Theme 3: Factors affecting sleep deprivation • Theme 4: Impressions of online education. Theme 1: Effects of Sleep Deprivation The theme effects of sleep deprivation emerged when participants described how sleep deprivation affected their lives at home, work, and school. Liz described how her academic performance is affected when she is tired and sleep deprived compared to when she is fully rested. She stated, It takes me longer to get the work done as opposed to times when I’m more restful. When I’m more restful, the task that I have to do will take me way shorter time to do to, in completing the task, as opposed to when I’m deprived of sleep 69 and very tired. I am getting it done but it takes me longer to get it done, more hours, so at times it will affect my performance. Sid suggested that it is not even important to have eight hours of sleep, because as an adult, he has the responsibility to fulfill his school obligations. He stated, Growing up as a kid I saw my mom working two jobs; as for me, I don’t think she slept. If she is not working one job, she is working another job, so that instilled in me that sleep is secondary compared to what you got to do to make ends meet. So, to me, don’t take offence to this, but I think sleep is for the lazy people. I teach my son that. I tell them that success is not by chance. You have to make it happen, and the difference between success and failure is your motivation. While Sid was reflecting on how his mom survived with less sleep, he felt that maybe he may not need to sleep that much. He stated, I think we sometimes get caught up in it, and especially if it’s something you’re passionate about, and that passion alone can burn your batteries enough where you say, “maybe I don’t need that much sleep.” I mean, I’ve gone to sleep thinking about this stuff and you know, that was one of the things that makes me tired and I still can’t go to bed. Each participant viewed sleep as an important activity; however, even though all 10 participants had prior experience with sleep deprivation, adequate sleep seems to be a secondary concern at this point in their lives. Fin reported that he was used to taking power naps and not getting enough sleep. He described his sleep as follows: 70 Yes, it’s adequate. I mean, like I said, I’m a retired soldier. So, as an infantry guy, we can go—I’m used to going, staying up 24 hours a day. Straight, 24 hours, no sleep. So my body is conditioned to go 72 hours without sleep. But that doesn’t mean I’m unaffected doing that. We need to plan it to where we get sleep rest. I call it power naps. I’ve taken many power naps. I can stand up for 15 minutes, put my head on the wall and sleep, and it felt like I slept for four hours. I’m trained to do stuff like that with my body. But I don’t think everyone can do that without training because I’ve been doing that since I was like 19, 18, 19, all the way ‘til now. For me, it’s a little bit different than probably the average person that has never been in a situation like I have. Another common advantage expressed by Wyn about the effects on his sleep habits is that his body adapts to his sleep cycles and he thought he may be unique. Wyn stated, “But I guess it depends on you as a student, because I know that for some people, that their sleep cycles are very set. Mine is not. I’m probably an exception.” The difficulties with having less sleep were accentuated by Kev: If you’re deprived of sleep, you’re not going to function as well, and I know that from personal experience, so you know, it’s just not learning, but it’s from personal experience. I’ve been there; I’ve done that. Sleep deprivation is probably the cause of motor vehicle accidents, accidents at work, it can cause safety issues, so yeah, sleep deprivation is not a good thing. Sue stated that she becomes cranky when she is not fully rested: Sue shared, 73 You know the one thing I had to do . . . was, I had a lot going on and was bringing my school to work. And that became a problem. It became a problem also for my professional life. I had to cut back on doing that, I try to get things done at work because there is a printer, access to certain things that I don’t have access to at home. I try to work with the situation because I have to get my schoolwork done at any cost. While some participants normalized sleep deprivation, others felt like they were in a constant state of playing catch up. Liz expressed concerns about her eating habits and the priority that her schoolwork takes over sitting down to eat a meal. Liz stated: Sometimes I don’t eat properly, sometimes I forget to eat, and sometimes it’s just one meal for the day. The information, I’ve heard about it, in my course of studies, and at workshops, I actually heard about sleep deprivation and it is important to have sleep but what are you going to do? Kev reported: “I feel like I would like to have eight or more hours. When I sleep at least eight hours I feel like I’m energized. I’m rejuvenated, but it has become a part of my routine sleeping those hours”. Participants mentioned the challenges they faced as they adjusted their lives to maintain a high level of academic performance. Deb described how family responsibilities take up the majority of her 24 hours: As far as taking care of my children, entertaining them, and taking them to child play groups is a lot of responsibility, I’m writing books, as well as I’m working 74 on my nutrition certification, then making corrections to my dissertation, resubmit it, working on my proposal, URR, and all that good stuff, and then cooking dinner, spending time with my husband when he does come home, putting my children to bed, and stuff, so it’s just a whole lot of responsibilities I have to deal with on a daily basis. I have to tend to the family. Mia stated that she still found it difficult to find enough time in the day to meet her deadlines. Mia stated: The lack of sleep contributes to problems in meeting deadlines. Well, it slows you down quite a bit, in regards to even the amount of time you want to get to log on in the classroom and also completing your homework, doing it in the right amount of time, you know, the deadlines you have deadlines and if you’re not, you don’t have enough sleep you wouldn’t be able to make those deadlines just because you’re trying to rush and stuff like that. Sid described how he broke it down into hours: Yes, that is a challenge. I work eight hours a day. I have to take my kids to school. When they come home from school, I have to make sure their homework is done, everything is read. You know, make sure they prepare for bed. Then I study, and after I study, then I go to bed. So it is a big challenge as far as me trying to get that timeline. So I try to break it down, like after my eight hours of work, I get home. So I’ve got two hours, 11:00 to 1:00, to do what I need to do, then I go ahead and get my sleep. 75 Wyn’s discussion focused on his daily schedule that included times when he is able to get some school-work done on his job. Wyn stated: I realize that sleep deprivation is a direct result of having a full schedule during the day. So with that in mind, you have to take things in proportion. I do some of my school work at work when the time is available and do some at home. You can’t overdo things. Deb was in a program that required her to complete her residency. Because she had to go into residency as a requirement for the PhD program, she mentioned that she had to stop breastfeeding her child. She stated that she believes in breast feeding and the decision was difficult for her. Well I would have to say my time with the residency was a big change because I actually had to stop breastfeeding my daughter as a result of having to go to my residency. Going to my residency, and then you know that was two weeks that I had to be in classes and leave my family. Then I had to come back and business as usual. So that was a major change in terms of being an online student having going back and have to deal with the changes personally with the family structure and stuff like that. Now, in terms of sleep, whether it impacted me in terms of sleep, that’s a different story. That was more so because of the breastfeeding. Speaking about adjustments to daily lives, Mia stated: You know, I go to bed later and later every night for some reason. And now it’s normal to go to bed late. As for my personal and professional life, I don’t have a 78 in-law will help, but my kids will find me wherever I am. I have to help them with their homework, but my personal life is affected. Wyn spoke about how he cannot escape the distraction at home with his children. He did bring to my attention that his son was running around. He stated: As you can see my little son is running around here so that’s a distraction. I think the distractions would be family matters or having family around. I know when holiday season comes by, if I have a lot of family coming then that definitely leads to distraction with my schoolwork. Mia discussed her responsibilities as completing eight hours of work followed by taking care of family responsibilities: I get up in the mornings, fix breakfast for the family, take a shower, trying to rush and get to work in the mornings, it’s crazy. Then I’ll do my eight-hour shift, come back home and then just kind of clean up a little bit, spend time with my family, work a little bit on my paper, which some days I don’t. The personal factors preventing the participants from obtaining adequate sleep and maintaining their academic performance included the television. Mia stressed that the television was her major distraction: This TV, it is ridiculous, I’m the type of person I got a TV in my room that is bad. So, I try not to study in my room but it’s there. Definitely, the TV is the biggest distraction to me. My phone doesn’t ring as much, I look on Facebook, but I’m not checking on everybody on Facebook, but the TV definitely is a distraction. 79 Kev concluded that sometimes he can’t help himself, and watches TV despite understanding that it is a distraction. He expressed, however, that he catches himself and returns to what he is doing, but feels guilty that he wasted time: But now let’s say, I’m in the middle of something, and they say something is on TV that will catch my attention, so I’ll stop and look, and then I get sucked into it for 10 or 15 minutes and say, “Oh no wait, I’ve got to go back to this.” So it’s 10 or 15 minutes I could have been using to get my work done, but now was distracted by the TV, now I’m gonna be up late, but guess what, I’m not getting enough sleep because if that continues, it builds up. Sue put into words her experience of being distracted by the television in the following way: It’s interesting because I am distracted at home by the TV. Some of the programs are so interesting that it’s hard to resist, but I do my best. However, at times I will go to sleep and end up not getting in my daily schoolwork. I get up in the morning and blame it on the TV. Sid discussed distractions other than the television. He articulated his experience of being distracted by going online: I occasionally hop online, and I think my vice is going to Yahoo and reading through their news articles. I didn’t equate that to the tabloid trash, there is no sense or rhyme or reason with any of the articles on Yahoo. 80 Wyn emphasized that his personality traits and personal characteristics work positively for him because he is a creature of the night: Okay great, alright so, like I said, to be honest, with the exception of the last class, I don’t think that I’ve experienced a lot of sleep deprivation. Again, like I’ve said, I’m a creature of the night so I’m typically up late up at night doing my assignments. So, even if I am not doing an assignment, I’m up late at night anyway. To try to answer your question, there have been times where, like I said with my last course, where I was up a little bit past my usual hours especially on a Sunday. There has been maybe one or two separate occasions where I crawled out from bed the following morning, you know, because I was a little bit tired, up until 4:00. On the other hand, Fin stated that as a result of being in the military, he was diagnosed with sleep apnea and experienced sleep deprivation prior to attending school online. He summed up his experience this way: So I guess I can say I’m a prodigal at sleep deprivation, because I do have sleep apnea. And like I said before, that could have been from me being in the military not sleeping, not getting my right amount of sleep. It could have impacted me later on like it does probably now. So it’s a whole bunch of information, I know about it cause I’m a prodigal. Sid discussed how his personal sleep habits have changed. Sid stated: 83 family and friends. Discussion among family members was crucial to participants getting their required amount of time to complete schoolwork while taking care of family responsibilities. The decisions and agreements made not only affect whether each family member is supportive and involved, but also can either cause conflict or provide opportunities for the student family member to be successful. Therefore, the spouse stepping in to provide moral support is equally important. Wyn stated: Family life, wife is very flexible, very understanding. She’s also a graduate student so she understands this well. So, you know, we try to make it work. Maybe I’m not the perfect candidate for your study. Liz echoed similar sentiments: If I’m getting too stressed, my husband will come and help me with a lot of the domestic chores, my mother-in-law helps me with what she can help with, but the major things that I have to do, I’m doing it. Participants also verbalized some of the negative factors that relate to the amount of family responsibilities and distractions within the home. While coding, I observed that some of the factors that affect sleep deprivation overlap. Fin noted that sometimes day-to- day tasks vary and can affect the time parents devote to their children: If you have kids, it’s a big distraction, because they want their time. And, you know, you have to be able to balance that time, because you can’t always tell 84 them to get away, I’m studying, because they have homework and school, and they don’t tell you to get away when they—you know, you have to balance that. Liz spoke about her experiences within the home and the challenges of being a mother and a student at the same time: Home is never usually the best place to do online class if children are there. If you don’t have young children the story is different, but if you have young children who are there, you’re not going to get anything done, I can speak for me again. But my children, they are very lively and very demanding, they will always want my attention, and always demanding, and it is always something legitimate for whatever reason there is, to do online class if children are there, if you don’t have young, and hey just come and you have to give them that attention, you have to, and of course they work on your emotion, they have something to show me they say, “look” and you have to, so the work is always there. They will get into trouble. I can always ask my mother in law, she is a senior person; I still have to give time to them, and that when I have to weekends is usually very harassing. Theme 4: Impressions of Online Education All the participants viewed online education positively even though they faced challenges as online students with family responsibilities and full-time jobs. Most participants pointed out their mistaken assumption that online education was going to be much easier. However, they found out that it was not easy compared to the brick-and- 85 mortar school experience. Sid stated that he was shocked when he realized his misconception about online education, and that it takes a lot of effort and sacrifice. He used humor as he described his experience: I’ll tell you what, it was like a smack in the face when I first got online. It’s not as easy as I thought it was, nobody pushes you but yourself. Now putting that aside, here doing online work, I thought compared to that, that this was going to be a breeze, but you know as well as I do, you know what, I have the highest respect for anybody that heckles [sic] online school. It is nowhere near brick-and- mortar and anybody who scoffs at that, have no idea, or have never taken online classes. Oh my gosh! The greatest lesson obtained from all this is not to take anything lightly when it comes to online schooling. I thought it was a joke to do online, but that was before I got into it. Now I have the utmost respect for people who do it because people who have gone before me, it takes a humongous amount of dedication and sacrifice. According to the participants, online education is very rigorous and is much more demanding than traditional brick-and-mortar programs. In discussing the question about the changes in her personal and professional life, Liz acknowledged that online education requires more commitment than a brick-and-mortar school: Liz said: Online university demands excellent work and full participation, it’s unlike the brick-and-mortar school, where you can piggyback on other people, leave the class, you don’t necessarily have to stay. In online you have to be your OWN,