Introduction to Concepts and Principles of Educational Assessment, Exams of Nursing

Download Introduction to Concepts and Principles of Educational Assessment and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! Introduction to Concepts and Principles of Educational Assessment Definition of Terms and Concepts in Psycho Educational Assessment In this section you are going to be introduced to some of the basic concepts used in educational assessment. · Assessment. · Evaluation. · Measurement. · Intervention. · Identification. · Tests. Assessment Assessment is the process of gathering the necessary information, analyzing it and using the results to make quantifiable value judgement. Usually, the value judgement is made on the performance, behavior or condition of an individual or a group in any field of operation including education, health or social life. There are therefore, different types of assessments that can be conducted depending on the area of operation Here are some examples of the different types of assessment: a) Educational assessment. b) Psychological assessment. c) Medical examination. Educational Assessment This is a type of assessment involving the gathering of the necessary information about a learner for the following purposes among others: - · determining suitable school placement. · determining the aptitude of a learner or potential learner. · determining academic achievement. · identifying the learner’s areas of difficulties. · determining a learner’s functioning level in a given subject or topic. · monitoring progress in class or in a subject. · Determining the individual’s proficiency in a language. · determine grade/class level of a learner or a group of learners. · ascertaining whether an individual has a condition or not (e.g. learning disability, cerebral palsy or low vision). · determining the degree of the disability (e.g. mild, moderate, severe or profound). prescribing the necessary assistive devices and other support services Psychological Assessment As opposed to educational assessment, psychological assessment is the type of assessment which involves the gathering of the necessary information about an individual, analyzing it and using the results to determine why he/she behaves in a particular way with a view to providing the necessary intervention our state of mind and behave normally in life. In order to get the necessary support, one would need to go first for psychological assessment. The assessment teacher should be able to screen the child and make an appropriate referral for diagnostic assessment. · 456132 Assessment at Screening Level What is screening? Screening is the initial stage of educational assessment during which, you identify and confirm whether a learner indeed has a special need and/or a disability. When you confirm that a learner has a problem, you may do either of the following: · provide appropriate support to cater for the learner’s individual needs. · refer the individual for Diagnostic Assessment. Assessment at Diagnostic Level What is Diagnostic Assessment? In diagnostic Assessment the nature and severity of a difficulty are Reliability Reliability refers to the consistency of the scores obtained by a learner when re- examined with the same test on different occasions or with different sets of equipment. This means that the test must give similar results for the same group of learners if the test is administered at different times and examined by the same examiners. For example, if the same test were to be given several times to the same individual at different times, the learner’s score would remain stable and would not significantly fluctuate. In this case, you may conclude that your test was reliable. Intervention Intervention is the action taken once a problem has been identified in order to correct, remediate, habilitate or rehabilitate. It is very important to intervene as soon as the problem is identified. This form of intervention is called Early intervention. The various forms of intervention you may apply after assessment may include the following: · Educational intervention: for example, school placement. · Medical intervention: referring a learner for treatment or surgery. · Psycho-social intervention: referring a learner for guidance and counselling. Identification Identification is the process of singling out suspected cases of children with special needs in education and/or disability for the purposes of assessment and intervention The following can help you to identify the children with special needs. · Parents. · Doctors and nurses. · Social workers. · Women groups. · Children’s homes. · Teachers. Strategies for early identification To identify children with special needs, you as a teacher will require to sensitize the stakeholders who may include: · parents · policy makers · implementers · teachers · service providers In the process of sensitization, you will discuss the: · characteristics of categories of children with special needs · the rights of children as contained in various - Policy documents - Legal framework - Legislation and international conventions such as: · Salamanca statement 1994 · The children Act 2000 · Persons with Disability Act 2003. How do you sensitize your stakeholders on learners with special needs and disabilities? · addressing them in barazas · mass media programs on special needs and disabilities · circulars · using community based organizations · involving organizations for and of persons with disabilities Early Intervention Early intervention refers to the process of providing children with special needs and disabilities with the necessary support. This should be done as early as possible. It may take the form of: · guidance and counselling to both learner and parents. · placement to education programme · referral for medical intervention · provision of home training programmes Factors that influence educational assessment · The assessor. · Person being assessed. · Assessment procedure and instrument. · Environmental factors · Ethical and social factors The assessor The following attributes of the assessor may affect the results of an assessment: · Attitude and personality. · Competence. · Establishment of rapport with the child and parents. · Ability to keep proper records. Attitude and personality of an assessor The assessor should have the following qualities. · Interest to assess the learner · proficiency in the skills necessary to conduct assessment. · familiarity in development and age – appropriate behaviour of both the average and the child with special needs in education. · non-judgemental · friendly and welcoming. Assessors competency In order to carry out effective assessment in a classroom you should have the following qualities and skills: · observation – You should carry out observation objectively. You may refer to section one of this unit for more details on observation. · be proficient in the skills and procedures required to conduct a given assessment. · have the appropriate assessment tools. · good questioning techniques. · be a good observer. Lack of awareness to overcome the denial: This is where the parents may not realise that they are not the only ones with a child who has special needs and that it can happen to anybody. Person being Assessed This refers to the client whose assessment is going to be conducted. The results of the assessment can be affected or influenced by the characteristics of the client. These characteristics include: - · Fatigue. · Test anxiety. · Prior coaching. Let us look at each of these characteristics briefly. Fatigue For appropriate assessment to take place, both the assessor and the learner to be assessed should not be exhausted or fatigued during or before the exercise. Therefore, do not keep the child waiting for long at the assessment centre. Provide them with play materials or some form of play as they wait to keep them busy. The actual assessment session should not last more than 10 – 15 minutes. Program the parents to come, for example, in the morning, during mid-day, and others in the afternoon to avoid keeping them waiting for long. Test Anxiety Taking a test is sometimes a threatening experience for children. It can arouse anxiety, fear and doubts about one’s ability to do well. Children under six years of age are not accustomed to testing situations. Their ability to sit and concentrate is also limited. You may have come across a learner in your class who gives answers impulsively without considering whether they are wrong or right. This behaviour is commonly observed in learners who wish to get out of the testing situation. Such a learner may be described as anxious and the score he/she earns may not be a true reflection of his/her ability. What should you do to avoid testing anxiety? You can get the learner’s anxiety reduced by making encouraging remarks such as: “You are doing very well and with just some extra effort you will make it”. Or “you have really tried!” When the learner’s interest fades away, you should consider giving him/her time to relax, play a little and then carry on with the test later when he/she is relaxed. Prior Coaching Prior coaching refers to giving hints and clues of what is to be tested. For example, if you happen to have prior knowledge of a test item before it is administered, it is likely that you would seek the assistance of a friend who is better placed than you to supply the answers which would enable you to perform well in that test. This is called prior coaching. Parents often play a role in prior coaching if they know that their child is going to be assessed. This often occurs in situations which they believe would benefit the child. In such instances, many parents would go out of their way to drill their children on how to respond to questions so as to achieve the desired goal. So, when you plan to assess the learners in your class, you should check against problems related to prior coaching. Environmental Factors This refers to the situation in which you carry out the assessment. The area should be conducive for the exercise to take place and all the precaution should be taken to make sure that no external or internal forces interfere with the process. Such factors include the following: · a child who comes for assessment while hungry or sick. · parents who are not in talking terms while at the centre. · weather that is too hot or too cold. Testing Procedures and Instruments Educational assessment can be carried out using different techniques and procedures depending on the nature of special needs of the learner. Legal, ethical and social implications of assessment What are the social and ethical implications of assessment? When dealing with diversity of learners, you have to bear in mind that they come from different cultural backgrounds. You should appreciate that their social and moral (ethical) beliefs could also be different. As an assessor, you should also uphold the professional ethics when carrying out educational assessment. There are several social and moral factors that may affect the effectiveness of educational assessment such as: · parental consent. · confidentiality. · legal issues Parental consent Parents are viewed as active partners in the education of their children. Before initiating any assessment, the parent’s consent must be sought and a full explanation of the procedure should be made available. A description of the action proposed, evaluation procedure, test, record or report and any other factors should also be given.The school must seek consent in writing from the parents in order to move ahead with the assessment process. You should Kenya Institute of Special Education Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) How would you carry out a baseline assessment? In an inclusive classroom, the findings of baseline assessment may help you to determine the level at which you start teachinga particular skill or content. What is continuous assessment? sometimes wish to establish what learners know before you introduce a new concept to them. What you will be doing in such a case can be described as establishing a baseline for your teaching. In other words, baseline assessment is used to establish the skills and abilities that a learner already has in order to determine the starting point for instruction that would address his/her educational needs. You can carry out baseline assessment through observation of learners either individually or when they are interacting with their peers, family and other community members, at the beginning of a programme. It can also be done through informal or formal tests. Continuous Assessment Continuous assessment, as the name implies, is the type of assessment that is carried out during the course of a program to monitor the progress of the learners. The Kenya Institute of Special Education to with special needs in education. You can use the findings modify the content that has not been mastered by the learner and also to modify the teaching techniques. Continuous Assessment Tests (CATS) that are administered in schools and colleges in Kenya today under the 8-4-4 system of education are good examples of this form of assessment. It is this type of assessment that we recommend for learners Terminal assessment Terminal assessment is the form of assessment that is carried out at the end of an educational programme. The information obtained through terminal assessment should enable you to determine the learner’s achievement at the end of a given instructional period and the areas in which the learner still needs more support. Terminal assessment for learners in Kenya may include: · Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) · Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) · Final examination given by Institutions at the end of certificate, diploma and degree courses. Areas of Assessment As you learnt in the previous unit, assessment should enable the assessor to determine the learner’s developmental and educational needs. It is therefore important that educational assessment covers different aspects of a learner’s life. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) How would you determine a learner’s level of self-esteem? You need to identify the talents that these learners may have in other areas such as athletics, sports, music, drama and activities and encourage them to develop and exploit them. This is another area that you should consider for assessment. This is because of the discriminative practices and negative remarks people often make about learners with special needs in a classroom. Such practices make the learners to develop low opinion, leading to low self-esteem. So, it is important that you determine how the learners in your class feel about themselves and respond to academic work. Learners who may be experiencing academic problems are often more affected than the others. You may carry out any of the following activities: · Observe learners to find out those who are not interested in academic work. · Listen to the comments they make about themselves to determine whether they are positive or are always negative. · Note their attitude towards class work. You therefore need to support learners with low self-esteem to develop interest in their academic work. As you support these learners in their academic work, you should support them too in areas where their talents and gifts lie. Motor abilities Kenya Institute of Special Education Discuss with a colleague how motor impairments can affect learning. Motor abilities refer to performance required to make voluntary body movements or manipulations, either in the area of gross or fine motor functioning. You may be having learners in your inclusive classes who look alright physically and yet they may be experiencing some form of motor difficulties that may not seem so obvious. It is therefore important for you to find out how the learners in your class physically execute classroom activities and manipulate their environment. If you want to check a learner’s fine motor abilities, you may use fine motor screen to assess his/her ability to use: · finger and hands to execute functional activities such as holding a pencil/ pen to write, a brush to paint in art; picking small objects like a needle; constructing items using small blocks of wood; · organ of speech such as the tongue and lips to produce sounds, to smile, to laugh and to eat; · eyes to follow moving objects. In order to assess the learner’s abilities to use large muscles such as those of the arms, legs and trunk, you may use gross motor screen and observe the abilities to: - maintain balance and posture; - coordinate hand-eye movements as in throwing and catching objects; - walk in a straight line. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) What are academic abilities? Academic Abilities Academic ability refers to the readiness of a learner to tackle academic work or learning activities at a particular level. In the assessment of academic abilities an assessor should give assessment exercise and activities in the following areas among others: · reading · writing · reading comprehension and listening · speaking and signing · number work and mathematics. All the above enable the assessor to understand the strengths and the weaknesses of the learner in order to recommend for intervention. Perceptual Abilities These are the prerequisite skills that are used in learning. Since learning takes place through the various sensory channels, you may have to assess the following perceptual abilities: · Auditory Perception · Visual Perception · Tactile Kinaesthetic Perception · Olfactory Perception · Gustatory Perception Details of perceptual training will be given in module sixteen: Teaching and Kenya Institute of Special Education · Belief that the task they are to do is worthwhile – Does the learner take the work seriously? · Belief in the fact that learning is worthwhile. – Does the learner have career wishes such as the desire to be a doctor, teacher and pilot as they normally do even when they are in nursery? Aptitude The word aptitude means the ability to acquire a certain skill. When you are assessing this area you should focus on the learners’ potential so as to find out if they can benefit from future instructions in learning. Learning Environment What will you put in place in an inclusive environment to ensure that it is catering for learners’ diversity? As a teacher you will be interested in seeing that the learners are learning in an environment that is conducive for learning. You have to assess the learning environment to ensure that it is catering for all learners’ needs irrespective of their special needs and disabilities. You should therefore focus your attention on the following: · Is the environment barrier free? That is, can it accommodate all learners’ needs, including those using wheel-chairs or visually impaired? · Is the environment culture free? That is, are there some limitations in your teaching because of culture values or beliefs? Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) your class. Purpose of Educational Assessment · Are there sufficient learning materials such as braille machines, braille papers, adaptive aids for children who have motor problems, sufficient charts and teaching aids? Discuss with a colleague some challenges you have encountered while teaching learners with special needs and disabilities in What are the purposes of educational assessment? I am sure that you have been assessing children in your classroom or school. The main purpose of carrying out educational assessment is to find out what a learner may or may not do and how he/she learns best, in order to take appropriate intervention measures. Therefore Educational assessment serves a variety of purposes in meeting the needs of learners in a classroom. These include: · Placement. · Assessment for instruction. · Family support. · Referral for further assessment or intervention. · Provision of devices · Medical treatment Let us now discuss each of these areas briefly. Placement Kenya Institute of Special Education What is placement? Placement is the act of putting a learner in the most appropriate educational setting or position. It is a very important step taken after assessment and identification of the learner’s needs and abilities. It is during placement that you refer the learners to the most appropriate educational programmes for early intervention. The choice of educational placement option depends on the age of the child, type and degree of the difficulty. In this case you may place a learner in: · An inclusive educational setting. · Special school. · Integrated unit. · Vocational training centre. · Rehabilitation centre. · Home training programme. Placement may also be an appropriate classroom position for a particular learner. For example, some learners may require that they be seated next to the chalkboard or teacher, while others may need a secluded place away from noise and other distracting stimuli. Jane is in class one. She has a visual problem which interferes with her ability to read well from a book or chalkboard. Discuss with a colleague how you may help Jane to participate in all reading and learning activities in your class. Assessment for instruction After having assessed learners in your class and organized for proper educational Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Summary In this unit, you learnt about some of the concepts used in assessment and their application. The unit has also enlightened you on the factors that influence educational assessment. In this case you learnt that the assessor, the person being assessed, assessment procedures and instruments, the environment, social and ethical issues greatly influence assessment of an individual. You also learnt about different types of assessment, areas and the purpose of assessment to guide you while you are performing your duties as an assessor. In this section, three basic types of assessment are discussed, namely baseline, continuous and terminal assessment. Areas of special needs and disabilities and their purposes of educational assessment to be carried out are also mentioned. You have now come to the end of this unit. You can now attempt the following self-test to evaluate your understanding of this unit. Kenya Institute of Special Education Self Test - Unit 1 16- 20 - Very Good 13- 15 - Good 10- 12 - Satisfactory 0- 9 - Read the Unit again 1. Name 3 basic types of Assessment. (6 marks) 2. Name five social and ethical implications that you must consider when assessing learners with special needs and disabilities? (5 marks) 3. Describe how you can establish rapport with a child before assessment. (4 marks) 4. What is the difference between assessment and evaluation? (5marks) You may compare your answers with the ones given at the back of the module and record your score. Score-Board Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Learning Outcomes Congratulations! You have successfully completed the unit. You have now completed unit one. The learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick in the column that reflects your understanding of the contents described. If you ticked in the not sure column, you may again read that section. If not then: Kenya Institute of Special Education Section 1: Case Study, Observation and Interviews. Section 2: Tests. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Section 1: Case Studies, Observation and Interviews There are many methods and techniques which you can use to gather the necessary information for the purpose of assessment. In this section, we shall look at the following methods of gathering the information: · case history; · observation; · interview; Let us now examine these methods briefly. Case History Case history is mainly used to gather information related to the learner’s background. Before taking any case history, you should consult with those involved in service delivery to the learner. During such consultations, you should discuss the learner’s problem and any other observable behaviour in order to verify and specify his/ her difficulties. The following people may be interviewed to provide the required case history: · The class teacher: To provide the experiences she/he has had with the learner in the classroom and in other learning situations. · The parents: To give information about the learner including the child’s birth history, physical and social development and family background. · The learner: To provide vital information that you may use to form your own opinion together with what you have been told. Observation In educational assessment, observation is a highly regarded assessment technique. It is sometimes referred to as diagnostic looking, or looking with a purpose. What is the main purpose of observation in assessment? There are two main purposes of observation in assessment. These are: · to describe a learner so as to determine correlation and possible causes of problem. · to explain the behaviour. Observation is one of the most important methods used for collecting assessment data. You should know what to observe. You should also record the information properly. You should observe the learners in their natural environment as they play and interact with caregivers, peers and all those around them. Sometimes you have to create situations that provide opportunities for collecting information about specific behaviours. Observation may also be carried out in the classroom. This will provide you with a unique opportunity to record the learner’s behaviour in a learning environment. It is believed that this will enable you to confirm suspected learning or behavioural problems. You also need to observe the parent - learner interaction. This observation is meant to give clues as to how a parent and his/her child communicate and interact. You can also observe a learner e.g. while doing an activity with the child or class. This is a good approach because he/she will behave naturally while you are observing. However, you can also be a non-participant during the observation by observing the child as he/she carries out the activity done or with others without your participation. In all the situations above the observation will always be done with a clear purpose. Kenya Institute of Special Education Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Why is an interview useful for gathering information with children? You should note that interviews can be used with parents, teachers and caregivers, as well as the children themselves. This type of observation is often used to study multiple interaction or behaviours occurring within a specific period of time. In this type of observation, the behaviours of interest are specified prior to the observation. Your main work as an assessor is to mark in the space provided every time the behaviour is manifested. The key to all observation techniques is to be clear of what you are to observe and the technique you are going to use to make the observation. Interviews An interview is useful for collecting information with children because it: · is a flexible technique that can fit many situations · can be used where other tools and techniques are inadequate · allows the assessor to probe the context further · is adaptable to most situations. What should you do during an interview? Figure.2.1: An interview session During an interview, you may do the following things: · Allow time to establish a rapport with the learner, his/her parents or teachers or whoever you may be interviewing. · Inform the interviewee that you will be taking notes to help you remember what you are being told. This relieves anxiety about what you are writing down and your intentions. · Share information you have gathered at the close of the interview with the learner or whoever you have interviewed. This will act as a sort of summary to create confidence in the person and ensure a Kenya Institute of Special Education Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) In order to be an effective interviewer, you should be able to: The interviews should provide relevant information about the learner which you can use to build an appropriate plan for intervention. Rating scales common understanding of what has been discussed. How should you conduct yourself during an interview? · listen and be attentive to those people being interviewed; · communicate a genuine desire to understand the learner or speaker and his/her point of view; · accept the information given without being judgemental; · check understanding by repeating, rephrasing or providing clarification; · encourage the other members to talk, discuss, ask questions and sometimes disagree with you. The rating scale is an assessment tool where the learner’s performance is rated using a described category or continuum. Example When observing a learner jumping the swaying rope, you can use the following scale to rate performance. Kenya Institute of Special Education This is a type of test whereby you assess an individual learner through observations, interviews and other self made tests. Discuss with a colleague the merits and demerits of using formal tests. According to Gearheart and Bill Gearheart (1990), formal Assessments have been developed to assess the following traits in learners. · Intellectual ability (Learning aptitude). · Achievement. · Measures of specific abilities (e.g. auditory, discrimination of colour, language abilities, reading, arithmetic and adaptive behaviour) · Behaviour and social adjustment Formal tests are not the best for assessing learners with special needs in education. This is because they do not cater for learners’ diversity and treat the target group as an homogeneous group. Informal Tests What is an Informal Test? The aim is to identify his/her strengths and difficulties. An informal test relies on: · observation of the learner’s varying skills in different areas Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) However, we shall briefly revise them in this section. · ability to come up with relevant test items. You can design informal tests weekly, monthly or termly. It is important that you set a criterion for those who pass and the failures. Informal tests include Teacher made tests. These are the tests that a teacher develops, administers and analyses to obtain results using a criterion she/he has set. Informal and formal testing can be carried out at the following levels: · Screening level · Diagnostic level Refer to Unit 1 to refresh your memory Screening Test This is an initial stage of assessment in which those who may be suspected of experiencing some difficulties in learning are positively identified from a given population and screened to determine the kind of difficulty they are experiencing in the curriculum or specific subject so that they can be assisted at this level or for diagnostic assessment if necessary. The suspected problem could be related to developmental, health or environmental issues. Without screening, many learners with special needs in education can easily go unnoticed and will therefore not get the necessary support. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Kenya Institute of Special Education Informal tests may be presented in the following forms: Which are the commonly used types of informal tests? · Teacher made tests. · Direct observation e.g. in the measurement of behaviour. · Projective tests. · Functional assessment and behavioural interview. Let us now examine each of these informal tests briefly. Teacher made Tests: We believe you are more familiar with this type of tests since most educational assessment procedures carried out in a classroom make use of them. Direct observation: This involves close examination and measurement of a learner’s behaviour, or his/her emotional characteristics as you interact with him/ her. Projective tests: In these types of tests, you allow the learners to assign their own thoughts, feelings, needs and other motives in an ambiguous situation. For example, if ink is poured on a white sheet of paper, it spreads in various directions and forms irregular patterns. You may ask a learner to describe what he/she thinks or sees about the pattern formed. The learner may give a variety of descriptions, which will help you to determine his/her feelings. Functional Assessment Tests and behavioural interview: Your main aim in using these types of tests is to obtain information that will be useful in designing intervention measures for a problem behaviour. You should identify the conditions surrounding that behaviour first. During the intervention period, your aim will be to change the frequency, intensity and duration of the problem behaviour. For example, if you notice a learner who always steals other children’s food and wish to find out why he/she does so, you may design an interview that helps bring out Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) The following formal tests are used in Kenya and Uganda: All these examinations are set and administered by the national examination bodies and offered to all the learners in the given countries. There are other standardized tests, which are used in Western countries. Some of these tests are: the reason why the child steals. A functional assessment may require that you prepare questions related to the behaviour in question and carry out a behavioural interview with the learner. It may also require that you or carry out direct observation of the behaviour and then record your findings. Name some formal tests that you are aware of. Kenya · Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE). · Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examination (KCSE). Uganda · Primary Learning Education (PLE). · Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE). · Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE). · Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children – revised (WISC – R): It is a Kenya Institute of Special Education general intelligence test for children of 6 to 16 years of age. The skills tested are comprehension, arithmetic, perception, vocabulary, picture completion and arrangement. · Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT) – This is a screening test of achievement in the area of mathematics, basic reading, reading comprehension, spelling and general information. · Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) – It is a test that is used to assess the learner’s skills in classification, labelling and placement. · Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) - It tests reading, spelling and arithmetic. · Woodcock Reading Mastery Test Revised (WRMTR). – This is a test used to assess the development of readiness skills, basic comprehension skills in learners in nursery up to adult age. It is important for you to note that you cannot use these tests directly in your classroom. This is because they were developed targeting learners who are from different cultures. However, they can only be used in our country after being tested on our own population and then modified or adapted accordingly. When these tests are adapted to suit our culture, they can be used to test all learners including those with different special needs in education. What are the other types of Assessment Tests? As discussed earlier in this module, other types of tests that are commonly used in education are: · Screening tests · Diagnostic tests. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) speech therapy, services that will occupational therapy, physiotherapy and other address their needs. - tests for pupillary reaction to light. - test for near vision. - test for best eye. - test for field of vision. · Mental disability: It can be tested using various adapted tests of intellectual functioning, special abilities and others. · Emotional and Behaviour difficulties: This can be assessed using behavioural interview and direct observation and other behaviour checklists. · Communication difficulties: Several assessment tests exist for assessing non-verbal, or oral receptive language abilities and other communication skills. The diagnosis of these difficulties may be successfully done by specific professionals once you have referred your learners to them. Diagnostic tests are meant to assist you in determining appropriate programmes and the best services you can offer learners. These include referring them for medical treatment, Summary In this unit you learnt about methods of gathering information for assessment. These methods include case study, observation, interview and tests. The main purpose of a case study is to gather information related to learners background and in observation you learnt that event recording, time sampling, checklist, rating scales and coded observation are some of the methods used in recording information. Interview and test are other methods of collecting information. In interviews you have been informed that they provide information about the learner which can be used to build appropriate plan for interventions. Two types of tests, that is formal and informal have been mentioned. In this two tests, screening and diagnostic tests, procedures for various areas of disability have been discussed. You have now completed your study of unit two. We hope that the knowledge and skills you have acquired will help you to gather information for assessment of children with special needs in education and support them appropriately. You may now do the self-test. Kenya Institute of Special Education Self Test - Unit 2 1. The process by which we determine the difficulties facing our learners is called? ( 1 marks) 2. Give three reasons why assessment is done. ( 3 marks) 3. Apart from referring your learners for educational intervention after an assessment, mention any four other places you can refer them to. ( 4 marks) 4.(a) The tests given to learners at the end of an educational programme or activity are referred to as? (b) Who should be interviewed to provide the required case history? ( 2 marks) 5. Tests such as KCPE and KCSE are.........................tests, while teacher made tests are …………………tests. ( 2 marks) 6. Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) – is used in the Western countries Open,Distance and Electronic-Learning(Module 12) Kenya Institute of Special Education Unit 3 Assessment Procedures and Tools Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Introduction Welcome to unit 3 Assessment Procedures and Testing Tools. In this unit you will be introduced to various assessment procedures and tools used in the assessment of children with special needs and disabilities. Aim The aim of this unit is to introduce you to assessment procedures and testing tools used in the assessment of children with special needs and disabilities. It will also provide you with relevant skills necessary for the use of these tools at screening level. Objectives By the end of this unit you should be able to: · Explain the different procedures used in assessment. · Use screening tools for assessment of children with special needs · Describe the various diagnostic assessment tools and procedures used in assessing children with special needs and disabilities. This unit is divided into the following three sections: Kenya Institute of Special Education Section 1: Assessment Procedures Section 1: Assessment procedures. Section 2: Screening tools. Section 3: Diagnostic assessment procedures. What are the procedures followed in screening assessment? When conducting a screening assessment you should follow the following procedures:- · Planning for assessment. · Selecting assessment tools. · Constructing and adapting screening tools. · Screening procedures · Administering the test tools. · Analysis and interpretation of findings (data). · Communicating the findings (data). · Referral for diagnostic assessment. · Planning for intervention. Let us now examine each of these areas briefly. Planning for Assessment The current practice in assessing learners with special needs and disabilities is by use of a multi-disciplinary team comprising various professionals from different disciplines. The reason being, in reality, the assessment of learners Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) · assign roles and responsibilities of members to ensure that information is collected in a variety of ways across multiple settings. Pre-planning enables the assessment team to carry out the listed activities and sharpen the focus of the assessment. It also enables the team to include the family not only in the data gathering process but also in the child’s programme from the beginning. Selecting Assessment Tools How would you select an appropriate assessment tool? The assessment process begins with careful planning followed by the selection or development of appropriate assessment tools. The tools selected will determine the success of the data gathering process. The appropriateness of an assessment tool depends on the context in which it will be used. Before you embark on using any assessment tool, you may ask yourself the following questions: · Does the tool serve the purpose of assessment? An assessment tool should provide the particular information needed to answer the assessment questions. · Is the tool appropriate for the learner? A tool should fit the learner’s needs and abilities. · Is the tool appropriate for the assessor? The tool should match your professional skills. · Is the tool technically adequate? The tool should enable collection of reliable and valid data. Kenya Institute of Special Education · Is the tool an efficient data collection mechanism? The tool should enable collection of the needed information with minimum expenditure of time and effort. If you are able to answer the above questions correctly and you are convinced that the test you have selected is appropriate, then you may use it. Constructing and adapting screening tools Screening is to identify an individual learner, or a group of learners, who perform at a low level to warrant a more detailed diagnostic assessment. Screening instruments tap only a small portion of the many academic skills necessary for mastery of any subject. Likewise, they sample only a few of many possible attitudes and behaviours. The instruments are usually designed for group administration, although some may be designed for use with an individual. What processes would you follow if you are developing an assessment tool? The following are the processes you may follow if you have to develop an assessment tool: · Identify the learner’s area of difficulty e.g. he/she may be constantly missing out letters in words while reading. · Determine the frequency of the problem and the degree to which it affects the reading. · Sample relevant test items starting at a lower level of reading until you come up with items which are at the learner’s level. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) · Note any motor or sensory difficulties and allow the learner to respond in the way he/she functions best. Study the following sample of assessment tool (table 3.1) developed to assess basic reading skills. Sample test in Basic Reading Table 3.1 is a sample of a reading test Description: This test is meant to determine Dan’s ability to recognise and read letters of the alphabet. The teacher will present the following letters on a flash card and ask Dan to read. Instructions to Dan: Identify and say the sound of the letters as they are shown to you. Letters of the alphabet to be shown to Dan: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Assessment The teacher will make a record of the letter not read and tick the ones read correctly. She will observe Dan’s behaviour and the strategy he uses. Note: If Dan is able to read all the letters, then the teacher may move Construct a testing tool to assess basic computing skills. Kenya Institute of Special Education After assessing and writing the assessment report, the findings should be shared or communicated. This should involve having a discussion with the team members and the parents. - completeness of the information gathered, - the presence of gaps, in which case, you may call other members of the team or the parents for additional information. Writing the assessment Report: Assessment reports are incorporated into records that follow the learner and the family for many years. Therefore, it is important that interpretations of the data be based on observations and test results. The report should be written using statements which are easy to communicate to parents and which would also be useful to those who will be planning the learner’s educational programmes in terms of teaching. Translating test results The assessment findings should be translated into teaching goals to form the basis for your instructional objectives and classroom teaching. You will learn more about this in Module 16: Introduction to curriculum development and adaptations. Communicating the Findings (data) How would you communicate the assessment results? You should take ample time to allow for discussion and questioning of the findings. Try also to arrange for a follow up meeting within a few days of the discussion to allow some people (parents, teachers or guardians) to assimilate the results especially if they touch on sensitive issues. You should describe the assessment findings in a Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Another way you can translate assessment findings into instructional activities is by using an Individualised Educational Programme. (IEP) clear and simple language. In your description, you should highlight the positive attributes of the learner with suggestions of how to enhance the development of the skills he/she has not yet acquired or is experiencing difficulties with. Referral for Diagnostic Assessment Assessment is used to facilitate referral of the child for further assessment. If the assessment team finds that the child needs further assessment, they should refer him/her to a specialist for assessment. The specialist might be a clinical psychologist, paediatrician psychiatrist, a reading specialist or speech pathologist. The specialist will then do further assessment to diagnose the problem. This will assist to make a decision on the next line of action. Planning for Intervention What is intervention? You have learnt in unit 1 that intervention is the action taken once a problem has been identified in order to correct, remediate, habilitate or rehabilitate. The intervention measures that are taken after assessment include among others: · placement · corrective surgery · provision of assistive devices What is an Individualised Educational Programme (IEP)? Kenya Institute of Special Education This is a written statement that describes what you as a teacher and other professionals will do to meet the special needs of a learner with a learning problem. Ideally, an IEP should be developed by you in conjunction with those people who are involved in the learner’s educational provision as you will learn about transdisciplinary approach in Module 16: Introduction to curriculum development and adaptation. Implementing the Intervention Measures Assessment may be used to plan instructional and intervention programmes. The programme may be for an individual child or for a group of children with similar needs. For instance, educational placement by itself implies that a group of children placed in the same classroom have the same basic needs. This may be true on the surface. However, with the emergence of the concept of multidisciplinary testing and individualised educational planning, educational intervention for a specific child is preferred. Instructional programming includes several strategies such as learning for mastery, acceleration, diagnostic prescriptive teaching or use of behaviour modification. Evaluation and Follow-up After assessing a learner you conduct an evaluation to identify present level of performance (diagnosis) using the results to determine appropriate intervention objectives (prescription) and conducting periodic re-evaluation to measure progress and revise the objectives. You should pre-test learners to determine learning needs and then teach using curriculum based on those needs. The results are achieved by making a proper evaluation and follow up of the learner with special needs and disabilities. Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) There are various assessment tests which can be done to children with special needs and disabilities. These include the following: · School readiness screening tests. · Visual impairment screening tests. · Hearing impairment screening tests. · Psychomotor screening test. · Perceptual skills screening test. · Language screening test. · Emotional and behaviour difficulties screening test. · Autism screening test. · Specific learning difficulties. Let us examine the following examples of screening assessment testing tools. a) School Readiness Screening Tests School readiness is a test which is prepared for a child before he/she is admitted in a school. It assesses the following areas: · Visual discrimination. · Auditory discrimination. · Visual memory. · Auditory memory. · Language comprehension. Kenya Institute of Special Education Following is a sample screening tool for school readiness. Table 3.2: A school readiness screening test Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Visual impairment Screening Tests In this test the following materials are used The test materials comprise of: - · 1 torch/flash light. · 1 red tassel. · 10 coloured beads. · 10 transparent beads. · 1 vision test chart The screening test should be used when a child’s development does not appear to be normal. Administration of the test This test should be administered using the following directions: 6 months – 3 years 1. Follows light. Move a flashlight in front of the child’s head – observer if the child follows the light. 2.Reaction of the pupils. When the light is switched on the child’s pupils become smaller, when the light is switched off the pupils become larger. 3. Grabs at red tassel. When you move a red tassel in front of the child, the child should be able to catch it. 3 years and over and 1. Picks up coloured beads placed in front of him/her. Place 10 beads in front of the child on a piece of white paper. The child should be able to pick all of them, one by one place them in the small box provided. Table 3.3: A visual impairment screening test. HEARING LOSS IN DECIBELS(DB) Kenya Institute of Special Education Table 3.5: Psychomotor Screening Test Psychomotor Screening Tests In this test the child should be able to perform the following activities 6 months – 1 year · When sitting, can bend forward using hands for support (only for a short time). · Can stand holding onto something. Place the child in a standing position on your lap, and hold the child by the hands – the child should be able to stand. · to pick them up. · · 1 – 2 years · · · it back to you. 2 – 3 years · · · · Can pick up 5 beads with thumb and index finger. Place 5 beads in front of the child and ask him/her Can pull self to standing position with support using a chair, your leg or your hand. Can sit self down on the floor without support. Can walk when held by one hand. Can walk without support even if the child sometimes falls. Grasp and release fully developed. Give the child something in his/her hand, and ask the child to give Can run, even if the child sometimes falls. (Make your own observation). Can quickly change from sitting to standing position. (Make your own observation. Can jump with two feet together. Show the child what you would like him/her to do. Can stand on one leg. Show the child what you would like him/her to do. Holding of position for two seconds is acceptable. · 3 – 4 years · · and run. · Can build 4 – block tower. Demonstrate for the child and ask him/her to do the same. Can walk on tiptoes for 5 metres. Show the child how to walk and ask him/her. Can run. If the child does not understand instruction then show him/her or take him/her by the hand Can button. If the child does not have buttons, ask him/her to do your buttons or use a buttoning frame. Show the child what to do if he/she has not done this before. 4 – 5 years · seconds. · Can stand on one leg. Show the child how to stand on one leg, and ask him/her to do the same for 4 Can get up easily from lying to standing position. Ask the child to lie down on the floor and then ask him/her to get up again. · Can catch a ball using hands and arms. Throw a ball to the child and ask him/her to catch it. 1 in 4 attempts should be successful. 5 – 6 years ·Can climb a small tree or chair. Ask the child to climb onto a chair, up a small tree;. ·Can hop on one leg. Show the child how to hop on one leg , and ask him/her to do the same (3 hops). · Can reproduce an outline on a piece of white paper. First draw a circle (diameter 4 cm). Next, draw a square (4cm x 4 cm) i.e. 4cm 4cm 4cm Then ask the child to copy them. The drawing is acceptable if the child can draw the same basic shape. If this is the first time the child has used a pencil, make a note of this. Kenya Institute of Special Education For more information on the development, designing and production of education resources refer to Module 4: Introductionto Educational Resources -Part 1. Figure: 3.2: A child sorting objects according to shape Table: 3.7: Language screening test Kenya Institute of Special Education Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Language Screening Tests In this test the child should be able to respond to the following activities 6 months – 1 year 1. Babbling developed to single syllable utterances. 2. Imitates sounds. The child tries to make sound he/she hears, e.g. baba. 3. Reacts to own name. The child reacts when called. 4. Says a few words. It is not important that the words are correctly pronounced. 5. Understands some simple commands, e.g. “give me the cup”, “show me your foots”. 1 – 2 years 1. Vocabulary of more than three words. (Ask the mother or make your own observations). 2. Much babbling. (Ask the mother or make your own observations). 3. Understanding is progressing rapidly. (Ask the mother if the child now understands more than he/she did a few months ago). 2 – 3 years 1. Vocabulary: Ask the child “what is…?” and show the child 5 things. If from the child cannot speak, say to the child “Show me…” Use items the child’s daily life. 2. Uses two word sentences. (Ask the mother or make your own observations). 3. Can tell you about own experiences. Try to ask the child about small simple episodes. 4. No babbling at all (ask the mother or make your own observations). 3 – 4 years 1. Language understandable to someone who does not know the child. 2. Use 3 – 5 word sentences. (Ask the mother or make your own observations). 3. Can describe simple events. (Ask the child about something from daily life). 4 – 5 years 1. Language is well established. The child can speak easily and fluently. Table 3.8: Emotional(Makeandyourbehaviownobservations)uraldifficulties. screening test Kenya Institute of Special Education Emotional and behavioural difficulties test The child should be able to respond to the following activities 6 months – 1 year 1. Smiles. When you play with the child observe to see if the child smiles. 2. Shows feelings when someone speaks to the child. (Make your own observations). 1 – 2 years 1. Shows expected response to facial expressions, especially the mother e.g. If the mother smiles at the child, the child returns the smile. 2. Follows moving people with the eyes (makes your own observations). 2 – 3 years 1. Recognises differences between people e.g. between parents and other adults. (Ask the mother or make your own observations). 2. Responds to words with sensible actions e.g. if told “come to me”, the child will come. (Ask the mother or make your own observations). 3 – 4 years 1. Likes simple play with other children. (Ask the mother). 2. Sleeps well without waking often. (Ask the mother). 4 – 5 years 1. Eats normally. Does not make a mess or have to be encouraged to eat. 2. Enjoys role-playing e.g. pretending to be mother/father or a teacher. (Ask the mother). 5 – 6 years 1. Show a normal fear of things which can cause harm. 2. Asks for help when having problems. 3. Tries to copy what adults do e.g. tries to do as the mother does when preparing food. Table 3.8: Autism screening test Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) analysis. Teacher-made informal screening and skill tests are designed to assess children with problems in the following subjects: · Mathematics; · Reading; · Spelling; · Writing; The following skills are assessed in specific learning difficulties Table 3.9 (i) : Mathematical skills assessment test Mathematical Skills Assessment These include: · weight; · · · · Classification of objects according to shape, size and Concept of numbers; One-to-one correspondence; Counting of numerals; Writing of numerals; · Concepts of weight, volume, length and area; · Conservation of volume, weight and length; · Basic computational skills (basic addition, subtraction, multiplication and division skills); · Concept of fractions; · Ordering of objects and number Think of more areas of mathematical skills that should be assessed. List them in your book. Kenya Institute of Special Education Table 3.9 (ii) : Reading skills test Reading Skills Assessment The skills assessed include: · Ability to perceive written symbols (letters); · Ability recognize the relationship between the letters and the sounds that they represent; · Visual/auditory discrimination, memory and sequencing for letters and sounds in words, for example, writing the letters ‘t’, ‘r’, ‘e’ and ‘e’ to form the word ‘tree’. · Memory for words and sentences, that is, the ability to recall words or sentences heard; · Basic vocabulary, that is, the number of words that a child has acquired; · Mastery of language in which the reading test is carried out, the ability to comprehend and use the language; · Ability to translate the written symbols into spoken List the main skill areas that are assessed in language, that is; ability to sound words correctly. children with reading problems? T Table 3.9 (iii) : Spelling skill test Spelling Skills Assessment Errors assessed include: · as ‘-om’; · ‘milk; · ‘school’ as ‘skul’; Omission of letters in words, such as pronouncing ‘Tom’ Addition of letters in words, such as pronouncing ‘milk’ as Writing of words as they are spoken, such as writing · Reversal of whole words, such as writing ‘was’ as ‘saw’; · Reversal of consonants in a consonant cluster, such as writing ‘strong’ as ‘sortong’; · Reversal of consonant/vowel directionality, for example, Write down some more examples of spelling errors that you writing ‘p’ as ‘q’; have observed in children · Reversal of syllables, for example, writing ‘ba’ as ‘ab’. Kenya Institute of Special Education Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) · Deaf blindness diagnostic tests. Let us now discuss each of them in brief. Visual impairment Diagnostic Test Assessment of visual ability is normally conducted by an ophthalmologist or optometrist Initial screening level assessment may take place in the assessment centre by the use of Snellen chart. This is a test of visual acuity. It uses a chart to describe the visual acuity. Figure 3.3.: A Snellen Chart The classification system used with Snellen Chart is one of the ratios: 20/20, 20/60 and so on. The first number is the distance in feet at which the test is made and the second is the size of symbols or letters on the chart expressed in terms of the distance at which a person with normal vision can comfortably read them. This information relates only to distance vision. Other vision difficulties should be considered differently by the use of other devices that have been developed Kenya Institute of Special Education specifically for use with children with special needs. Which other Diagnostic tests would an ophthalmologist use for testin vision? I hope you mentioned the following tests among others.. · Tests for papillary reaction to light. · Test of near vision. · Test for best eye. · Tests for field of vision. · Test for actual size of letters a child can read and the lighting required. Find out about the sizes of magnifying glasses used in reading letters according to size. Hearing impairment diagnostic Test Assessment of possible hearing impairment is usually conducted by an audiologist or a special trained teacher of children with hearing impairment. The results of an adiometric assessment typically includes an audiogram (a chart showing the degree of hearing loss, if any, in each ear), and a discussion of the probable effects of any existing hearing loss. The units for measuring hearing loss are called decibels indicated as: (dB). Open,Distance and Electronic- Learning(Module 12) Hearing characteristics checklist for babies 0 – 6 months. Distraction screening tests for hearing used with children of 6 to 18 months old. Co-operative test for hearing for children of ages 18 – 30 months. Performance tests for hearing for children of ages 2½ years. Fig. 3.4: sample diagram of audiogram The number on the left side of an audiogram (see diagram) indicates the intensity of sound (in decibels) required for the individual to hear at various frequencies. The O (zero) near the top of the scale indicates the degree of loudness necessary for a person with normal hearing to hear sound. That is the larger the number of decibels indicated, the greater is the hearing loss. Which areas of diagnostic assessment should an audiologist test? The areas of hearing impairment that should be assessed are: