Introduction to Outdoor Leadership - Study Guide | KINE 460, Study notes of Nutrition

Download Introduction to Outdoor Leadership - Study Guide | KINE 460 and more Study notes Nutrition in PDF only on Docsity! Chapter 1 – What is Outdoor Leadership? . . . the practice of leading individuals and groups into natural settings via a variety of modes of transportation: walking, biking, canoeing, caving, kayaking and mountaineering. Recreation & Leisure Recreation is considered leisure. Recreation occurs during leisure time, but leisure is a broader concept then recreation. “Leisure” = non-work activity into which people enter voluntarily for employment's sake, but this does not mean that leisure is purposeless: potential benefits of leisure as "relaxation, diversion, and refreshment. “Recreation” means "to regenerate, refresh, or re-create," represents a form of leisure in which individuals exert energy through some form of physical activity. "Rather than simply watching others play for the sake of amusement, recreation entails participation in the activity." Outdoor Recreation Outdoor Recreation is considered to be recreation activities that occur in natural settings. Defined as: "all those leisure experiences in the out-of-doors that are related to the use, understanding, or appreciation of the natural environment or those leisure activities taking placing indoors that use natural materials or are concerned with understanding and appreciation of the out-of-doors." A series of phases constitute the overall outdoor recreation experience: Anticipation, Planning, Participation and Recollection. Environmental Education . . . concerned with two types of relationship: Ecosystemic and Ekistic Relationship  Ecosystemic refers to the "interdependence of living organisms in an ecological system."  Ekistic refer to "key interactions between human society and the natural resources of an environment." Environmental educators teach people about the relationship of humans to the natural world.  Involves developing an understanding of ecosystems and the place of humans with those system.  Involves developing an understanding of issues in natural resources management, environmental preservation, and other areas of concern in the field. Adventure Education Provides opportunities for personal and interpersonal growth through adventure experiences. This can involve using the challenges of wilderness living and travel to develop greater self-confidence. It can also involve using the aesthetic beauty of natural environments as a source of spiritual enrichment. Or it can involve teaching individuals to use adventure sport to maintain a healthy, active lifestyle. - 1 - Experiential Education "a philosophy and methodology in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge. - 2 - Places That Use Outdoor Leaders Park Systems Park employees are responsible for the conservation of cultural and natural resources and the development of interpretive programs conveying the significance of those resources to the general public Schools Expeditionary Learning Outward Bound (ELOB) is suppose to be instituted in schools Adventure Therapy Can be useful in addressing the needs of young people who lack basic developmental support Nonprofit Organizations Outdoor Learning Centers Military Recreation Professional Practice  Starting a career in outdoor leadership o Good idea to look at the AEE Jobs Clearinghouse or jobs posted on an organization’s web site  Building a Professional-Developmental Portfolio o Outdoor resumes are different from any other type of resume; highlights experiences an background - 5 - Chapter 4 - Leadership Theory James MacGregor Burns Pol Sci and Soc Philosopher, wrote Leadership Plato Wrote The Republic, said the ideal leader is one who rules with order and reason and is virtuous. Machiavelli The Prince Leadership: 1) Is intentional, aiming toward accomplishing certain goals. 2) Is interactional, involving relationships between 2+ people. There are many definitions. Hegemony Suggests that as a culture develops, systems of meanings and values are actively created by both groups and individuals. Trait Theory of Leadership Leaders are born, not made. “If the leader is endowed with certain superior qualities that separate him from his followers, it should be possible to identify these qualities. Great Men Theory of Leadership Focuses on historical examples, certain factors predestine some to be leaders (birth order, education, upbringing, etc… Charismatic Leadership Theory Lead by influencing emotions and thus a strong reaction, emerge in times of crisis. Leadership Styles Autocratic/Authoritarian Leader Highly directive, does not allow input. Democratic Leadership Emphasizes the need for members to be involved in decision making. Abdicratic/Laissez-faire Leadership Allows group to operate on its own, only adds info when asked. Situational Leadership Theory: 1) Any situation plays a large part in determining leadership qualities and the leader for that situation. 2) The Leadership qualities of an individual are themselves the product of previous leadership situations that have molded the individual. Contingency Leadership Theory Leadership is task or relationship oriented, and which leader arises depends on what the situation requires. Transactional Leadership Task Oriented using stick, stones, and reason to accomplish finite goals. Transformational Leadership Use relationships to motivate followers to act in the groups interest and to become “full” self assured people. Truer to the idea of leadership. Transformational Leaders use the Four ‘I’s: 1) Idealized leadership provides vision and a sense of mission, pride, trust, and respect. 2) Inspirational Motivation communicates high expectations and importance of purpose in simple ways. 3) Intellectual Stimulation promotes intelligence and careful problem solving. 4) Individual Consideration gives personal attention, treats as individuals, and both coaches and advises. Feminist Leadership Theory Focuses on communication and communication skills up, down, and laterally. Authentic Leadership Theory Leaders try and accomplish the best action, but it’s impossible to find universal truth. - 6 - Servant Leadership Theory Leader is a servant first. (see Herman Hesse’s book, Journey to the East) - 7 - Chapter 6 - Judgment and Decision Making Decision Making- the process of choosing the best option from a collection of possible options  Gather data based on the past  Think ahead at potential outcomes that may result from decision  Use sixth sense (3rd eye); representation of intuitive wisdom that helps you see the big picture  Recognize any patterns  Be prepared to change plans, if outcome isn’t what was desired  Decision making will improve with experience and knowledge Judgment- based on past experiences and outcomes of decisions that were made;  knowing what you know and what you don’t know- Paul Petzoldt (NOLS founder)  Good Judgment - ability to arrange experiences, resources, and information in a commonsense way to obtain positives results  Best Way to Learn Judgment o Seek knowledge via formal education o Use mentors and coaches o Practice, practice, and practice, learning from each experience o Maintain a self-development plan based on feedback from nature and from others  Priest and Gass- judgment cannot be taught but can be developed; o power of reasoning o experience alone is insufficient o engage in process of evaluation and thoughtful reflection Decision-Making Process  Weigh your options, consider the pros and cons of each option  be aware of your consequences for the group, personally, for safety and risk management, costs, and trip quality  Main variables involved in a decision making focus on the questions: who, what, why, when, where, and how  Gathering information from answering these questions allows you to make a better decision Simple Decisions- have fewer variables, limited consequences, and outcomes that are relatively predictable o Should not be time consuming Complex Decisions- characterized by uncertainty in terms of the information, the options, or the outcome  Identifying the level of complexity will allow you to respond to simple decisions relatively effectively and quickly  Outdoor leaders usually make decisions in the middle of the continuum between simple and complex (graph pg 75) Decision Making Models- combination of models provides the most useful application Analytic Model Highly structured, linear nature, most helpful in making timely and effective simple decisions, prevents simple from developing into complex a. Define the Problem b. Gather Relevant information c. Consider priorities d. List solutions e. Evaluate solutions and consequences f. Implement a decision g. Reevaluate Natural Nonlinear - Outdoor leaders usually rely on systematic thinking, common sense, intuition, and - 10 - experience-based judgments and apply them to new ones. o First step is to stop, and consider situation; mistake people make is making a decision too quickly Creative Nonlinear, level of structure and approach will depend upon the situational variables; it is based on pattern recognition, reflective thinking, stimulation, and extended brainstorming. a. Recognition of patterns- involves development of sixth sense; patterns develop with each wilderness trip; patterns include 1. Weather predictions 2. Ability to “read” participants 3. Average distance that group travels per day 4. How much food to pack per person b. Reflective Thinking - employed when a situation is ambiguous, when it presents a dilemma, and when alternatives are available; when uncertainty is present and information is missing, then a person must rely on her memory of general concepts, composing specific predictions to fill in for uncertainties 1. Inductive reasoning- develop general concepts from specific experiences 2. Deductive reasoning- when information is missing, rely on general concepts to fill in uncertainties c. Stimulation 1. involves step-by-step consideration of each decision and the outcomes of the decisions d. Extended Brainstorming 1. List all ideas to fully consider unconventional options 2. Leaders learnt to use 360º vision of all options - 11 - Decision Making Methods (advantage/ disadvantage chart on page 82) Leader Decision Leader makes decision without consulting group Consensus Decision Group comes to full agreement Voting Decision Leader wants group input quickly and is not seeking unanimity Arbitration Outside source may intervene, probably if group is at a standstill or leader lacks experience Chance Decision Flip a coin, if group can’t decide Compromise Decision Certain group members have to compromise their position to allow the group to move forward Expert Decision Decision left up to an expert - 12 - o A leader should treat members consistently, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or social background o A leader should establish clear policies that all group members are expected to follow o Outdoor Leadership as Professional Practice o Practice=any coherent and complex form of socially established cooperative human activity o The “goods” internal to that form of activity are realized in the course of trying to achieve those standards of excellence that are appropriate to the activity. [goods=satisfaction of achieving a high level of excellence in outdoor leadership] o An outdoor leader must do more than have technical skill, but must be able to work towards achieving the ideal ends associated with the practice o Entering into a practice involves standards of excellence and obedience to rules as well as the achievement of internal goods o Virtues of Outdoor Leadership o One precondition for entering a professional practice is that practitioners be honest. o Justice is another essential virtue o Compassion lies at the heart o However, there are no universal standards Model for Ethical Decisions o First step: Ask, “What is the practice I’m engaged in?” and “What is the ideal end of the practice?” o Second step : List your options, considering your obligations to the group and the potential effects of your decision o Third step: consider the ethical guidelines under which you are operating o Fourth step: employ the ethical principles and theories in this chapter and use them to help determine which factors are relevant o Fifth step: identify your own bias and how if may - 15 - Chapter 8 Goals of Facilitation - Shift outdoor experience from excursion in outdoors to a dynamic learning experience - Move group/individual towards desired outcome Facilitation styles - Nondirective facilitation- laissez-faire style that allows participants to determine which way they will go - Appreciative facilitation- emphasizes what works well and concentrates on success and achievement - Activity facilitation- occurs during an activity. Facilitator interjects during the activity to influence what is experienced. - Group Facilitation- facilitator builds climate for learning and team building (positive group dynamics) - Directive Facilitation- leaves little to chance o Frontloading- facilitator tells group what they should learn from the experience in order to create focus and a reference point o Framing- helps a group make sense of the experience o Metaphors- help group understand how a particular activity relates to their lives outside of the experience Transfer of Learning- taking an experience and applying that learning elsewhere - future pace- any learning that occurs needs to be seen as something that will be used sometime in the future - 3 types o Specific transfer- involves learning particular skills for use in closely related situations o Nonspecific transfer- learning more general principles, behaviors, or ideas and applying them to a different situation o Metaphoric transfers- learning principles, behaviors, and ideas and generalizing those ideas to a new situation Facilitation Techniques Reviewing the experience Adding value to the experience Making sense of the experience Making connections with other experiences Developing learning skills Readings- can help frame an activity or can help articulate a reflection Journal writing- strong tool for processing an experience. Specific questions may be assigned to focus response Isolation- provide time alone for reflection and self-eval Challenge by Choice- if individuals are not ready to move out of their comfort zone because of physical, psychological, or emotional reasons, the activity will not affect the participant in a desirable way. Outdoor leaders should ask everyone to challenge themselves, but not push them. Interpersonal Conflict- conflict within self - 16 - - Avoidance- nonassertive method of dealing with problems - Accommodation- low assertiveness technique but involves some cooperation - Competition- high assertiveness, low cooperation - Compromise- we are taught to do to make everyone happy about an outcome, but it often leads to everyone being unhappy because everyone has to give something up - Collaboration- each person works to meet the goals of the other. Neither the person nor the situation is lost in this process. Difficult because both parties must be able to see problem from another point of view. - 17 - Role of Leaders in Group Development - Stages Forming Participants often fell some uncertainty related to acceptance, inclusion, and safety. The leader needs to provide essential information to assuage those concerns. Storming Group may resent leaders or feel let down for some reason. Leaders may be viewed differently and may not live up to the idealized being that some group members see. Conflict can arise among group members. Leaders should encourage confrontation of issues. Norming Attention to maintenance is important. Leader can help facilitate activities that help the group bond together. Performing Group norms and roles are well established and the focus is on goal achievement. Leader gives technical support and responsibility to the group Transforming Leader can assist by recognizing dependency issues, assuring the group that what happened during their experience is important, and fostering transference of the experience. Co-leadership (up to Pretrip considerations) “When the group is led by two individuals a co-leading pair-the fluctuating expectations and demands, and the interplay between members and leaders over time, become especially complex and interesting. The dyad can be viewed as a small group in its own right-developing over time with its own internal issues, linked to the phases and preoccupations of the larger group at a time.” Group development is divided into four phases: 1. Encounter 2. Differentiation 3. Production 4. Separation Chart pg 141. Establish equity between leaders by determining roles, setting parameters, and establishing opportunities to contribute to the group. Flexibility, equalizing power, responsibility, use of skills, developing competence and comfort. Keeping groups goals in sight by awareness of relevant concerns, careful planning, and evaluation of co-leader and group process. - 20 - Chapter 11 Challenge Course Profession Before ACCT: challenge courses based on staff creativity, no risk management uniformity. ACCT (Association for Challenge Course Technology): 1988, developed universal challenge course standards in 1991 (in inspection, technical, course operations, and ethical standards) PRCA (Professional Ropes Course Association) at this time, no universal certifications exist for challenge course leaders (basic training = minimum 40 hours, but cannot cover all areas; many shadow/apprentice) 1. Origin of Challenge Courses  1940s: British Outward Bound + the military backgrounds of most 1940s British Outward Bound instructors = first challenge course (to simulate working high in ship rigging), called the Eskdale challenge course  first U.S. Outward Bound school formed 1962  first U.S. OB challenge course: Ernest Tapley, invited to visit Eskdale & had military experience as well (10th Mountain Division), created the U.S.’s first at OB’s Marble Canyon base camp 2. Challenge Courses in the Beginning  (at Marble Canyon) 35-foot rope ladder, simulated rock climbing, required students to belay  Tapley would debrief, to maximize education  late 1960s, ‘70s: OB beginning to rise  hébertisme – George Hébert, French Navy officer, focused on physical conditioning/training of French Navy, emphasized development of “moral values and virile character” (1913); created opportunity to discover personal potential/limitations in natural environment  two Canadian army officers (served in France in WWII) exposed to hébertisme, implemented program at Camp Ecole Trois-Saumons (Quebec) in 1949 3. Movement Into Mainstream Education  Project Adventure – one of the first organizations to integrate challenge course programming into mainstream education (from OB philosophy/former staff), 1971, nonprofit educational organization, experiential learning: college campuses, summer camps 4. Course Environments  space is always an issue  forested areas: the first in the US and Canada were in groves of trees, to support the ropes and cables, low/high elements  planted telephone poles in open spaces: alternative to forested areas, allows for strategic “planting” and therefore more flexibility, low/high elements  three large poles in a giant tripod: low/high elements can be strung between, good for limited space  rafters/walls of gyms & other open ceilings: high elements in otherwise wasted space  conference centers: team-building for conventions, meetings, generally temporary so as to be dismantled after event Challenge Course Programs Effective Challenge Course Leadership: the ability to provide successful programs that accomplish predetermined goals Major Barriers: lack of public understanding, novice outdoor leaders Challenge Course: “an experiential adventure program which offers groups/individs the opportunity to participate in a series of activities involving mental/physical/emotional risk taking” (Rohnke et al) Pros facilitate CC experiences based on goals/objectives intended to produce specific outcomes - 21 - activities must be sequenced & facilitated to meet program goals  can be indoors or outdoors  outcomes depend on program goal three global goal orientations: education, therapy, recreation; may stand alone or be combined (Venn diagram on p. 155); can be applied to any adventure activities 1. Recreation (Global Goal Orientation #1)  relaxation, socialization, enjoyment, thrill seeking, skill development, self-improvement (motivations; may be conscious or unconscious)  leisure experience: when intrinsically motivated participant has freedom of choice and perceived control over activity; up to them to pull what they wish from experience  occur within leisure context…like zip-line touring in Hawaii 2. Education (#2)  intentional and developmental, formal goal setting/assessment  specific developmental targets: psychomotor, cognitive, affective domains  experiential learning cycle: direct experience, reflection, generalization, application (SEE CHAPTER 12)  ultimate goal: to facilitate change within participant  developing confidence, communication, teamwork…possibly in corporate contexts 3. Therapy (#3)  renewal, personal growth; more specific  medical model…if considered therapy, licensed health care pros involved  individ treatment plans based on diagnoses  ie for substance abuse centers There are four fundamental program components: the next three, plus #4: low elements 1. Games and Icebreakers aka warm-ups (physically/socially), deinhibitizers fosters group development during early stages of group dynamics name games, tag, stretching (positive) program tone, (productive) initial group norms established 2. Group Initiatives problem-solving, team-based, no specialized safety system…w/out inteference/reliance on facilitator trust activities, however if group is not ready they can backfire 3. High Elements individ/team, require belay system; participants are required to climb or be lifted a significant distance self-confidence, self-efficacy specific technical skills for leaders: belayed, equipment use, course setup/inspection… must be able to facilitate psychological/emotional effects of perceptions of risk facilitation ability à participant outcomes there are four key leadership functions: full-value contract, challenge by choice, sequencing, and processing Sequencing it is the art of choosing appropriate activities and organizing them into an intentional progression to accomplish goals and group needs; the activity plan - 22 - Lesson planning Goals and Objectives Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Timebound Content outline  Organization of what you intend to convey Strategies  Lecture, Directed questions, Task, Demonstrations, Stories, Role playing, Group exercises, Guided discovery, Problem solving Be Creative, do not lecture - 25 - Chapter 13 - Parks & Protected Areas Management Natural resources Land (forest, grasslands, deserts, snow & ice areas) Water (rivers, bays, estuaries) Living (plant & animal life) Recreation Ecology Environmental impact Can be positive or negative Carrying Capacity Amount of human traffic that an area can withstand before being adversely affected by that traffic Biological: affects on the actual resources Psychological: affects of one visitor on another Dispersed Use Encouragement of visitors to explore less popular and less used areas Preservation Protection of nonrenewable resources that take a long time to regenerate Sustainable Use Balance use with replenishment Renewable resources (forest wildlife, water) Bureau of Land Management Mission: to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations U. S. Forest Service Bureau of Reclamation and Army Corps of Engineers Mission: to reclaim the arid lands of the western U.S. for development through the construction of dams, power plants, and canals. National Park Service Mission: to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats, for the continuing benefit of the American people Bureau of Indian Affairs Created to serve as the U.S. government’s primary agency for interacting with America’s numerous tribal governments Mission: foster partnerships and provide service to native peoples National Wilderness Preservation System National Wild and Scenic River System Intended to ensure that these rivers remain free flowing and protected from uses that would cause drastic alterations in the rivers National Trails System Agencies responsible for managing NTS include National Park Service & Bureau of Land Management State Parks One of the most useful resources at the state level to the field of outdoor education and recreation Municipal Parks Natural settings are maintained as open spaces for public use such as the James River Multiple Use Aimed at drawing a balance among the interests competing for the same resources Permits Different for individuals/small private groups versus organized groups Different for non-profit versus commercial outfitters Can be difficult to obtain a permit in federally managed parks and protected areas because of carrying capacity and other management issues General Rules & Regulation - Maximum group size - Distance from waterway (generally 100 yards) - Campfire regulations **Key Resource Management concepts** - Carrying capacity - Dispersed use - Multiple use Chapter 15 - Program Management - 26 - PROGRAM MANAGEMENT - Refers to administrative duties/procedures conducted by a program manager to ensure safe, enjoyable, & environmentally sound adventures o Outdoor leaders are expected to manage program paperwork o Program managers typically oversee equipment needs for the larger programming structure  PROGRAM DESIGN—forms the cornerstone of program management o Macro Programming: creating the entire adventure program structure o Micro Programming: specific trip plans o Trip plans/activities must be designed w/in the context of larger programming goals & objectives  PROGRAM CONSIDERATIONS - Exist to provide a framework for program development on a macro level o A well-written mission statement is necessary; it serves as a guide for the development of program goals & objectives throughout the organization o Goals & objectives are designed to put organizational philosophy & mission into action o Additional factors to consider when putting together programs:  Programs should be designed to operate w/in an organization’s budget  Programs should be based on market research or extensive knowledge of the intended participants  Needs Assessment forms are good ways to get participant information  Programs should be designed to be affordable for intended participants  Programs should be planned based on current best practices w/in the industry  Programs should be designed to model the best environmental practices-i.e—leave no trace principles  Programs should be designed to be inclusive in order to facilitate participation by individuals of all abilities & backgrounds ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES  Staff Selection: o Program managers may have to hire staff members, a crucial part of programming o The core competencies serve as a good foundation to determine employee qualifications o Time taken to select quality staff helps ensure program success & growth  Personnel Management: o Is a complex process governed by state & federal laws  Involves creating job descriptions, screening, interviewing, developing benefit packages  Aspiring outdoor leaders should be aware of fundamental supervisory functions o Guidelines designed to assist program managers in developing orientation programs:  Proper staff training is an important risk management practice & helps ensure quality programming  Implementing an apprenticeship program or assistant leader positions are helpful so that novice staff members can work beside seasoned staff members before leading their own groups  Managers should create training schedules far in advance  In-house or in-service employee training is an important component of continuing education o Supervisors who work w/ outdoor leaders should consider the following guidelines to keep their staff healthy & happy  Scheduling:  Do not over schedule staff—give them appropriate days off & avoid scheduling back to back trips, burnout can be common  Compensation:  In general, salary & benefits tend to be minimal, so it’s nice to consider creating a professional discount program so that staff can purchase personal outdoor equipment at cheaper prices - 27 -