INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, Slides of Introduction to Public Administration

Download INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION and more Slides Introduction to Public Administration in PDF only on Docsity! 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Lesson-01 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 1.0 Objective: 1. Student would be able to know Public Administration and can able to define it. 2. Student would be able to understand views on managerial activities. 3. Student would be able to learn significance of Public Administration and Public Administration in Developing Countries. Structure: 1.0 Objective 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Public Administration: Meaning 1.3 Definitions 1.4 Nature of Public Administration 1.5 Characteristics of Public Administration 1.6 The Scope of Public Administration 1.6.1 According to Integral View 1.6.2 According to Managerial View 1.7 Significance of Public Administration 1.8 Relationship between Public Opinion and Administration 1.9 Importance of Public Administration in Developing Countries 1.9.0 Features of Public Administration in developing countries 1.9.1 Increased State activity 1.9.2 Welfare State Concept 1.9.3 Democratic Setup 1.9.4 Stabilizing Force 1.9.5 Instrument of Social Change 1.9.6 Evolution of the Discipline 1.9.7 Changing Context 1.9.8 Good Governance 1.9.9 E-Governance 1.10 Conclusion 1.11 Model Questions 1.12 Reference Books 1.1 Introduction: Public Administration consists of the activities undertaken by the Government to look after its people or to manage its affairs. The concept of Public Administration, seems pertinent to understand the meaning of the terms “public” and “administration” separately. The word “public” stands for the people of a definite territory or state. As the will of the people of a state is represented by the government, the word “public” also connotes a specialized meaning, i.e., governmental. The English word “administer” is derived from the Latin words “ad” and “Ministrare” which means “To Serve”. Thus, in simple words 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 “administration” means the “management of affairs” or looking after the people. Woodrow Wilson is regarded as the father of the discipline of Public Administration. 1.2 Public Administration: Meaning: Public Administration is the complex of Governmental activities that are undertaken in public interest at different levels such as the central, state and local level. It essentially deals with the, machinery and procedures of Government activities. It is a means by which the policy decisions are made by the political decision makers. Public Administration is decision making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and goals, working with the legislature and citizens of organization to gain public support and funds for Government programmes, establishing and revising organization, directing and supervising employees, providing leadership, communicating and receiving communication, determining work methods and procedures, appraising performance, exercising control and other functions performed by government executives and supervisors. It is the action part of the Government, the means by which the purpose and goals of the Government are realized. Public Administration translates the policy goals set by political decision makers, provides goods and services to people, and implements socio-economic development programmes for all round development of society. With the emergence of democracy and the concept of modern welfare service of state, the governmental activities have increased by leaps and bounds. Initially, the Governmental activities were mainly limited to maintain the law and order, collection of revenue and protecting the citizens from external aggression. But, nowadays, the Government has to take care of its citizens from womb to tomb. It means the Government has to provide various goods and services to people from birth to death and even after that in the form of taking care of the family of deceased. 1.3 Definitions: Public Administration as defined by a few scholars clarifies as to what the term conveys. According to Woodrow Wilson, “Public Administration is the detailed and systematic execution of Law. Every particular application of a law is an act of administration”. According to L.D.White, “Public Administration consists of all those operations having for the purpose of fulfillment or enforcement of public policies as declared by competent authority”. According to Mc Queen, “Public Administration is the administration related to the operation of the Government whether Local or Central”. According to Marshal E. Dimock, “Public Administration is concerned with ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the Government. The ‘what’ is the subject –matter, the technical knowhow of a field which enables the administrator to the technical know-how of a field which enables the administrator to perform his tasks. The “how” is the technique of management, the principles according to which co-operative programmes are carried to success. Each is indispensable, together they form the synthesis called administration”. 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 whereby, order and social purpose are given to the effort of vast numbers”. A more comprehensive account of the scope of public administration has been given by Walker. He has divided it into two parts: (a) Administrative theory and (b) Applied Administration. Administrative theory includes, the study of structure, organization, functions, and methods of all types of public authority engaged in carrying out the administration at all levels, i.e., national, regional, local etc. Applied Administrative is difficult to give a comprehensive statement as to what “applied administration” should exactly include because of the new and fast growing field of public administration. Walker has made an attempt to classify the main forms of applied administration on the basis of ten principal functions which he calls as political, legislative, financial, defensive, educational, social, economic, foreign, imperial and local. Although there is much of overlapping in the classification of Walker, it is a good attempt at an exhaustive definition of applied administration. In a more summarized form, the applied administration includes the study of administration in the various countries of the world, of various departments of services in the progressive states, of organization of various levels, i.e., governmental, local, national and international of the historical development of administrative methods and techniques and of the problems connected with international organizations. More particularly, public administration is only a means to the attainment of the objects of the state itself- “the maintenance of peace and order, the progressive achievement of justice, the instruction of the young, protection against disease and insecurity, the adjustment and compromise of conflicting groups and interests in short, the attainment of good life of people. 1.7 Significance of Public Administration: Public Administration is an essential part of a society and a dominant factor in life in the modern age, which has seen the emergence of what has aptly been called the ‘Administrative State’. There has been tremendous increase in the importance of Public Administration with the expansion of state activities. The Centuries old nation of police state which was responsible only for the maintenance of law and order and the policy of laissez faire, i.e., least interference in day-to-day activities, has completely lost its relevance. The modern state has undertaken the new role of accelerator of economic and social change as well as prime mover and stimulator of national development. With this change, in the ends of modern state the purpose of public administration have also been completely reoriented. There are employment exchanges, rationing offices, government mints, departments of agriculture, industries, foreign relations, etc., which effect almost every citizen in one way or the other. This abundantly proves that public administration is a vital social process charges with providing greater needs. It is an integral part of the social, cultural and economic life of a nation and is a permanent force of life. Edmond Burke said “constitute government how you please infinitely the greater part of it will depend on exercise of powers which are left at large to the ministers of state. Without proper management, your commonwealth is no better than a scheme on paper and not a living, active, effective constitution. In the words of D. Waldo it is “apart” of the cultural complex and it not only is action upon, it acts”. It is a great creative force. According to Woodrow Wilson the primary objective of administrative study is to discover what a government can do and to discover how it could be done in better manner. Wilson postulated that prior to the 18th century; the activities of the government were not as complex as they were in the 19th century. Political scientists during that period framed Laws for different countries and the administrative systems implemented them without any problem. The focus of all political thinkers was on framing the laws and the implementation of such laws was treated as natural corollary which required little scientific analysis and thought once a law was made, it was considered as implemented, as the administration could force it down on the people without much resistance. According to Wilson, 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 in the 18th century and prior to it, the question that bothered all political scientists was how to make a constitution and not how to implement it. According to Wilson, in the 19th century, presented a contrasting picture different form the earlier century. As the Population had increased and the governmental activities had become extremely complex. The advent of an industrial society thrown up problems of an extremely complex nature which the government was expected to solve. The functions of the government are everyday becoming more complex and difficult every day, they are also vastly multiplying in number. Administration is everywhere putting its hands into new understandings. Due to such an amorphous nature of functions the practicing administrator finds it extremely difficult to comprehend the various facts of his job. Such a situation, according to Wilson, demands support from intellectuals in the form of systematic study of administration. According to Woodrow Wilson, the primary objective of administrative study is to discover what a government can do and to discover how it could be done in better manner. Wilson postulated that prior to the 18th century, the activities of the government were not as complex as they were in the 19th century. Political scientists during that period framed Laws for different countries and the administrative systems implemented them without any problem. The focus of all political thinkers was on framing the laws and the implementation of such laws was treated as natural corollary which required little scientific analysis and thought, once a law was made, it was considered as implemented, as the administration could force it down on the people without much resistance. According to Wilson, in the 18th century and prior to it, the question that bothered all political scientists was how to make a constitution and how to implement it. 1.8 Relationship between Public Opinion and Administration: Wilson examined the problem, as to what part shall public opinion take in the conduct of administration and his answer was that the role of public opinion should be that of an authoritative critic. According to Wilson, directly exercised, the oversight of the daily details and in the choice of the daily means of government, public criticism is of course a clumsy nuisance, a rustic handling delicate machinery. Wilson opined that administrative study should find the best means for giving public criticism this control and for shutting it out from all other interference. For the improvement of public opinion the civil servants of a high caliber are required. Therefore, Wilson felt the need of technically trained civil service personnel, Wilson unambiguously stated that the civil servants are the apparatus of government. Wilson believed that civil servants were mainly not involved in the policy formulation. 1.9 Importance of Public Administration in Developing Countries: The importance of Public Administration can be gauged form the fact that it plays an important role in the life of a citizen from the time he is born till he dies. Both in the developed and developing countries, public administration has come to play a crucial role in regulating the societies and lives of people. The role of public administration in the developing countries as follows. The developing societies are mostly those poor continents such as in Africa and Latin America, and Asia, became independent after the Second World War. There are several variations in regard to their social political conditions. Today, the world is divided into developed countries like America, U.K., Japan, Canada, France, etc., and the rest of the countries. The 7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 developing countries can be further classified depending on their different stages of Development. However, economic backwardness is common in all these countries. The standard of living in these countries is lesser than that of the developed countries. In developed countries much attention is paid to sustain the progress they achieved during these period. 1.9.0 Features of Public Administration in developing countries: In view of the economic and political change, administrative systems, in developing countries must adopt themselves, to meet the changing requirements. Public Administration is confronted with heavy burden. Growth and development with social justice that too in the quickest possible time, the challenge faced by public administration in these countries. The distinguishing features of public administration in developing societies are discussed here. First, personnel management practices in the fields of recruitment and promotion are outdated. Merit is not given adequate recognition and encouragement. Secondly, public administration is not sufficient to meet the growing requirements of the state. A huge burden is placed on the administration machinery, hence, it is unable to bear it. Thirdly, the growing centralization in decision making despite the attempt towards greater delegation and decentralization. Fourthly, there is the dominance of the generalist administration in the administrative system. Fifthly, the relationship between the power wielding politician –minister and the decision- implementing public officials is often not as harmonious as it ought to be. Sixthly, corruption in public administration in most developing countries has been increased enormously. 1.9.1 Increased State activity: Public administration assumes much importance in modern times in the developed and the developing societies as well, it’s importance in the developing societies needs elaboration and emphasis. The developing societies are engaged in the gigantic task of development to eradicate the illiteracy, poverty and hunger. The strategy adopted in most of these countries for accelerated development in planning. In the formulation and successful implementation of plans and in the timely completion of schemes and projects, administration plays a significant role. Administration’s operational focus should be on proper policies and programs and their effective implementation. The civil servants, in particular, have to be accommodative and sensitive to the needs of people. Public Administration, by virtue of its national character, consisting of personnel belonging to different communities, castes and tribes has a vital role in bringing about national integration. The importance of public administration in modern times needs no special emphasis. The well being of the people is increasingly dependent on the performance levels of the machinery of public administration. 1.9.2 Welfare State Concept: The range and volume of activities of the administration have increased in modern days. Scientific and technological advancement, industrial revolution, the acceptance of democratic and welfare state ideals and socialist principles and the requirements of development administration are the most important causative factors for the development. Public Administration’s activities with which people come into contact in their daily lives, it is no exaggeration that there is no field of human activity by which the administration is not concerned 10 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 1.12 Reference Books: 1. Ralph Clark Chandler (eds), A centennial History of the American Administrative Sate, The free Press, New York, 1988. 2. Jack Robin and James S. Bowman (eds), Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984. 3. Woodrow Wilson, “The study of Administration”, Political Science Quarterly Vol.50, December, 1941. 4. Robert T. Golambiewski, Public Administration as a Developing Descriptive Part I, Marcel, Dekker, New York, 1977. 5. Mohit Bhattacharya, Public Administration, World Press, New Delhi, 1987. 6. D.R. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 7. Maheswari, Shriram, Administrative Thinkers, Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi, 1998. 8. Fadia, B.L. and Fadia, Kuldeep, Public Administration, Sahitya Bhavan Publications, Agra, 2009. 9. Dr.Satyapriya & Pritam Singh, Public Administration, Bright Career Publication, Delhi, 2007. 10. Public Administration, Concepts, Theories and Principles, Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad, 2011. 11. Arora, Ramesh Kand Sogani, Meena Themes and Issues in Administrative Theory, Arihant Publishers, Jaipur, 1991 12. Sharma, M.P., and Sadana, B.L., Public Administration in Theory and practice, Kitab Mahal, New Delhi, 2010. 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Lesson-02 POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY: WOODROW WILSON 2.0 Objective: 1. Student would be able to know what is Dichotomy. 2. Student would be able to learn different era of Political Dichotomy. 3. Students would be able to learn the contribution of Woodrow Wilson for Politics- Administration Dichotomy. Structure: 2.0 Objective 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Period I: (1887-1926) – The Era of Politics –Administration Dichotomy 2.3 Period –II: (1927-1937) – Principles of Administration 2.4 Period – III (1938-1947): Principles stood challenged 2.5 Period-IV (1948-1970) Crisis of Identity 2.6 Period – V (1971 onwards) 2.7 Woodrow Wilson contribution for Politics-Administration Dichotomy 2.8 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: After Wilson 2.9 Abandonment of the Dichotomy 2.10 Conclusion 2.11 Model Questions 2.12 Reference Books 2.1 Introduction: Public Administration is regarded as one among the newest disciplines of the social sciences. Like other disciplines it has passed through several phases of evolution. Administration as an activity or as a process is believed to be as old as the human cultivation is, Woodrow Wilson made significant contributions to the development of Public Administration as a separate discipline. 2.2 Period I: (1887-1926) – The Era of Politics –Administration Dichotomy: The first stage of its evolution is considered to have begun with the appearance in 1887 of Woodrow Wilson’s essay titled “The Study of Administration”. He is regarded as the father of the discipline. Though the essay, the most distinguished essay in the history of American Public Administration, Wilson sought to aid in the establishment of Public Administration as a recognized Field of study. “The Study of Administration”, Wilson’s published writings are numerous. Among them, more important are congressional movement. A study in American politics (1885). The State-Elements of Historical and practical politics (1889); Division and Reunion 1829-89 (1893): An old master and other Essays (1896); George Washington (1896); A History of American people in 5 volumes (1902). In this essay Wilson has stressed the need for a separate study of administration as 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 he regarded administration as distinct from politics. He argued that law making or framing a constitution is the concern of politics, while administration is concerned with the running of a constitution. This initial conceptualization of public administration came to be known among the academic circles as politics –administration dichotomy. Gradually, public administration started receiving increasing attention of the scholars in America, mainly because of public service movement was took place in American Universities during the early years of this century. In 1920, the development of public administration as an independent discipline was further boosted with the publication of L.D. White’s first text book in the field titled “Introduction to Public Administration” (926). This book faithfully explained that politics should not be allowed to interfere with the public administration like management is republic of becoming a “value free” science. The remarkable feature of the first period of the evolutionary stages of the discipline was a passionate belief in ‘politics-administration dichotomy’ and the practical invalidity of the dichotomy did not bother the tinkers. 2.3 Period –II: (1927-1937) – Principles of Administration: The second period of evolution of the discipline is marked by the tendency to reinforce the idea of ‘political administration’ dichotomy and to evolve a value free science of management. Public administration achieved high reputation during this period because of the expertise of the administrators, working in industry and government as well. The period dawned with the appearance of W.F. Willoughby’s works ‘principles of public administration’ in 1927. The title of the book axiomatically indicates the new thrust of the discipline. In the same way, a number of other works appeared, the more notable among them being ‘Principles of Organization’ by Mooney and Reiley; creative experience by Mary Parker Follett; ‘Industrial and General Management’ by Henri Fayol. This period is believed to be at its climax in 1937 when Luther H. Gulick and lyndal Urwick’s “Papers on the Science of Administration” appeared. The use of the word ‘science’ was significant for Gulick and Urwick considered that, administration is a science. Gulick and Urwick coined the acronym –POSDCORB- to promote seven principles of administration. The POSDCORB maxims of administration were said to be of universal applicability in old organizations. Every administration has to perform regardless of the cultural, social and political settings ‘POSDCORD’ was a term encompassing the executive functions of planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting. At the root of ‘POSDCORB’ synthesis was the plea for building an effective and efficient administration system right from the very highest level of administration. This phase in the history of public administration theory is often called as the “High Noon of Orthodoxy”. 2.4 Period – III (1938-1947): Principles stood challenged: The third stage can be termed as one of reaction and challenge against the so-called ‘principles of administration’, which were dubbed as ‘naturalistic fallacies, and ‘proverbs’. In 1938, Chester Barnard’ considerably influenced Herbert A. Simon, who was preparing a divesting critique of the field, particularly the principles. The real challenge to the theory of public administration came from two directions: One objection was against the principles and the other was against dichotomy. The dichotomy was described as misleading, a fetish, a stereotype, and it was though that this dichotomy was at best naïve. Many practitioners and academicians felt that, the dichotomy had severely damaged the field. However, a more severe attack was directed against the principles. The basic allegation against these 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Nevertheless, the politics administration dichotomy was proposed by Wilson and accepted by the scholars who immediately followed him. The dichotomy became a dominant model in the study of public administration during the first phase of its history. Frank J. Goodknow who immediately followed Wilson, also made a distinction between politics and administration. Gooknow contended that, there were two district functions of government which can be identified as politics and administration. According to him politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state’s will, while, administration executes these policies. The politics-administration dichotomy which originated in the writings of Wilson dominated the field till the end of Second World War. The dichotomy became an important component of classical theories who intended to build an independent subject of public administration on scientific lines. It was also intended to solve the value problem in public administration. It was pleaded that the separation would help the political system to establish values and get goals for administration. 2.8 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: After Wilson: Goodnow carried further, the dichotomy proposed by Wilson, Frank Johnson Goonow was an American educator and legal scholar, born in Brooklyn, New York. After private schooling he graduated from Amherst College in 1879 and from the Columbia Law School in 1882. Goodnow became professor of administrative Law in 1891, and in 1903 acting professor of Administrative Law and Municipal Science. He became the first President of the American Political Science Association in 1903. Governor Theodore Roosevelt made him a member of the commission to draft a new charter for Greater New York and President Taft chose him as a member of his commission on Economy and Efficiency. He is considered as an important early scholar in the field of public administration and administrative law, as well as expert in government. Basically, Goodnow conceptually distinguished “two distinct functions of government”, which he designates as politics and administration. “Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will”, Goodnow explains “Administration has to do with the execution of these policies”. The heart of his distinction lies in the classic separation of powers, which prescribes the desirability of entrusting the formulation of policies to a different organ” –other than one which is charged with the execution of those policies. Goodnow argued for the centrality of law in public administration. Goodnow’s classic work politics and administration: A study, government aims to express the separation of government authority beyond the traditional executive, legislative and judicial triad. For Goodnow administration in neither homogeneous nor separated from politics. He maintains that administration includes the “function of executing the law”, as well as “semi scientific, Quasi-Judicial, and Quasi-business or commercial” functions. The latter functions are largely administrative and not unconnected with politics. So they should be relieved from the control of politics, at least to a large extent. As for the “executive function”, Goodnow notes oppositely, it cannot be subjected to the control of politics. This, Goodnow’s conceptual concern is with the analytical focus but not the locus of public administration. Goodnow’s analytical distinction between politics and administration is a difficult one. Goodnow provides only a general direction for isolating the central phenomena within the administration. This vagueness is compounded by the fact that Goodnow looked at public administration from a cosmopolitan view of its real locus. Goodnow’s concept of public administration, consequently, would require that students confront legislative specialists, for 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 example, with a claim on the latter’s real locus. An analytical distinction is no match for a distinction based on concrete locus, however. This was particularly the case in Goodnow’ time. Essentially, Goodnow contributed to the superficially easy differentiation of public administration and political science. Landu notes that in Goodnow’s view politics and administration represent different pattern of behavior and each present different sets of problems. However, the total operations of government cannot be assigned completely to different agencies of government. The relation of politics to administration is one of separation and subordination. Goodnow argues that while politics can never be completely apart from administration, popular government requires that it is the executing authority which shall be subordinate to the expressing authority”. According to Goodnow, the executing authority should be one of centralized administration, is contrast to decentralized or local administration and it should also not be overly controllable by the expressing authority for fear of impartial administration. 2.9 Abandonment of the Dichotomy: In 1920’s scholars began to challenge the politics administration dichotomy. Based upon their experiences academicians and practitioners of public administration found the dichotomy was both descriptively and prescriptively inadequate. It was increasingly realized that administrative officials help the politicians in several ways in the legislative and policy making processes. Paul H. Apple by vehemently, attacked the politics administration dichotomy by asserting the politics and administration are intimately related. He further argues that public administration is policy making. He also adds that public administration while making policies are subjected to several political constraints like other public officials including the legislators. These external pressures offer strong protection to the public from the arbitrary and undemocratic action of the officials. F.W. Riggs dismissed the politics-administration dichotomy as a mere myth. But he commented that the myth depends upon a narrow interpretation of the meaning of politics. Riggs points out that in transitional political systems the bureaucracy actively involve in policy making process and to some extent in the party politics. Riggs branded the transitional politics as bureaucratic politics. He viewed that in these societies it is very difficult to draw a strict line of separation between political system and administrative system as there is close interaction between these two spheres of activity. Luther Gulick questioned the wisdom of separating politics form administration. He maintains that, politics is an action which has to do under the control of rulers. As such, it cannot be taken out of administration nor administration from politics. He argues that the dichotomy between politics and administration has broken down and hence a new doctrine should be developed that permits the fullest possible use of the expert in an appropriate framework of political and professional responsibility. Gullick explained the roles of politicians and administrators. In his view the role of politicians is to maintain equilibrium in the overall system, by adjusting the relationships between experts, administrators and interest groups. The administrator’s role is to understand and coordinate public policies and interpret policy directions to the operating agencies but with unquestioned loyalty to the elected officials. This, administrators are subordinated to political executives as they do not make final decision on policies, do not advocate policies and do not openly criticize policy position of the government. Simon rejects the policy-administration dichotomy on both descriptive and normative grounds. On descriptive ground, Simon argues that the political and administrative functions 7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 are performed by both political and administrative officials. Since, politicians are often involve in the selection of means, administrators are involved in both policy making and policy execution operations. Simon also rejects the dichotomy on normative grounds. In place of the policy-administration dichotomy, Simon proposes the fact- value dichotomy, which he argues and provide a better basis for a science of administration and a more appropriate standard for administrative conduct. Waldo contends that the politics-administration dichotomy is inadequate either as a description of reality, or as a prescription for administrative behavior. The dichotomy, according to Waldo, was intended to resolve the conflict between bureaucracy and politicians by making elected officials responsible for framing policies and restricting administrators to the execution of policies. Waldo’s view is that instead of attempting to separate politics and administration we should evolve a philosophy that encourages co- operation among the administrative and political officials. Jack Rabin and James S.Bowman argues that, although the politics and administration may be separated for purposes of scientific analysis and political reform, they are inseparable in operation. The politics- administration relation was less a dichotomy than a continue from routine administration to pure politics. Riper totally rejects the viewpoint that Wilson is responsible for the origin of politics-administration dichotomy. He concludes that while Wilson did not mean to pose any form of dichotomy, his essay is simply so contradictory and confusing that it precludes any precise interpretation as to what he really meant. He concurs with still man that Wilson vacillated between the two poles of thought regarding the separability of administration from politics. 2.10 Conclusion: Woodrow Wilson’s “The study of administration” was considered a new beginning in the thinking on administration. Though Wilson did not regard his essay too highly, yet he had admitted that he was merely presenting a semi-popular introduction to administrative studies and that goes critical round the study, considering it from various outside points of view, rather than entering it and handling its proper topics. As a young teacher of government Wilson not presented with a scientific definition of administration as a challenge to the great evils of the day, spoils in politics and the patronage. Nevertheless, Wilson unquestionably posited one unambiguous thesis in his article that has had a lasting impact i.e., that public administration was worth studying. The article marks the birth of public administration as a self-conscious inquiry or a ‘generic course’. 2.11 Model Questions: 1. Discuss the different stages in the growth of public administration as a discipline. 2. Politics –administration dichotomy is simply a myth. “Examine the validity of the dichotomy in the light of above statement. 3. Critically examine the politics- Administration dichotomy as visualized by Woodrow Wilson. 2.12 Reference Books: 1. Ralph Clark Chandler (eds), A centennial History of the American Administrative Sate, The free Press, New York, 1988. 2. Jack Robin and James S. Bowman (eds), Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984. 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 3.2 Life: Henry Fayol, is well known for the general principles of management formulated by him early in the 20th century. Henry Fayol was born in 1841 in France. He graduated in mining engineering and was appointed as an engineer in a mining company in 1860. He rose to the position of Managing Director of the company in 1888. His most famous book was ‘General and Industrial Management’ which was first published in France in 1915, but it did not come to light in the English speaking countries until its English Version was published in 1929. As a professional engineer, Fayol tried to apply scientific principles to the Industry. As a Chief Executive, Fayal viewed organization from the top, Fayol wanted to build the organization from the level of foreman to the workers at his machine. In other words while Taylor applied scientific method to the lowest range of the hierarchy and then work upwards, Fayol worked from the top to downwards. Fayol, believed that the success of a manager depends not upon his personal qualities but on the methods he implement on employees and the principles that govern his behavior. This belief led him to build a new theory of administration which earned him the reputation as the father of modern management. 3.4 Fayol’s Ideas: A widespread tendency in the English speaking countries was to draw a distinction between management as an activity confined to conducting industrial undertaking, and Public Administration as the art of conducting Governmental activities, According to Fayol, such a distinction between management and Public Administration is false and misleading. Fayol provided a general approach to administration. He concentrated on certain important elements of administration. They are (a) Forecasting and planning (b) organization c) command (d) coordinator and (e) control. Fayol asserts that, administration is not the exclusive privilege of those at the top. Fayol considered administration as only one of six groups of activities which include: (a) Technical activities – including production, manufacturing and adaptation (b) Commercial activities – buying selling and exchange (c) Financial activities – provision of capital and optimum use of capital (d) Security activities – protection of property and persons (e) Accounting services – stock –taking, balance – sheet, costing, statistics and (f) Managerial activities – planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. A close examination of these classification of these activities reveal that there is some overlapping in these activities. According to Fayol, observed that for each group of activities certain basic abilities are necessary to carry there out. These are: (a) Physical qualities (b) Mental qualities (c) Moral qualities (d) General education (e) Special knowledge of the task assigned, and (f) experience. 3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Fayol concentrated on the principle of organization more than anyother principles. In his opinion organization is set up for carrying out all types of activities. It provides raw materials, capital personnel and all other necessary things. Fayol identifies fourteen duties or functions which an organization discharges. The important among them include; planning, guiding, co-ordination, decision-making, specification of functions, maintenance of discipline, controlling and so on. Fayol emphasized the importance of clear lines of authority. In his opinion the purpose of command is to activate and guide the organization in achieving its goals. The manager who gives commands to subordinates must possess exemplary behavior and see that order and discipline prevails in the organization. 3.5 General Principles of Management: Fayol’s analysis provides a means for viewing the managerial process and guides (the principles) for implementing the process. According, fourteen management principles have been provided as guidelines to the thinking of managers in order to resolve and concrete problems. Fayol developed a set of principles which can be applied to all types of organizations irrespective of their settings. However, Fayol admitted that all these principles may not have universal application or would have permanent character. Fayol out lined these principles as follows: 3.5.1 Division of work Division of work leads to specialization which increases the efficiency of individual employees. According to Fayol, is to develop the personnel capable of carrying out the six activities already described. For this, they need specialized skills and expertise. Subdivision makes each task simpler and results in greater efficiency. By repeating a small part of work the individual acquires speed and accuracy in its performance. This process is applicable to both technical as well as managerial work. Fayol stressed the fact that every organization, big or small, should place its employees according to the talents and experience of each individual. 3.5.2 Authority and Responsibility: Authority refers to the right of a superior to give orders to subordinates, take decision on specified matters, use resources of the organization, guide and regulate the behavior of subordinates. Fayol defined authority as “the right to give orders and power to extract obedience”. He distinguished between two types of authority: Official authority and Personal authority. Official authority is legally given to a person, while personal authority is acquired through one’s ability, knowledge, experience and intellect. In the opinion of Fayol authority must commensurate with responsibility, hence steps must be taken to induce people to accept responsibility. This can be made possible by entrusting responsibilities to all the people who exercise authority at various levels in an organization. 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 3.5.3 Discipline: Discipline in the context of management means obedience, proper conduct in relations to others, and complying with the rules and regulations of the organization. Fayol observed that discipline is a prerequisite for proper exercise of authority. According to Fayol discipline has two dimensions. Firstly, obey orders only when the management provides good leadership. Second, discipline would become one-sided affair if it is imposed upon the subordinates form above. 3.5.4 Unite of Command: This principle states that, a subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to the superior only. No employee, therefore, should receive instructions from more than one person. Fayol’s principle of unity of command contradicts Taylor’s principle of functional authority. Fayol did not favour a system of dual command which in his view, was likely to result into confusion in authority channels and ambiguity in responsibility pattern. 3.5.5 Unity of Direction: Unity of direction is another important principle of administration proposed by Fayol. According to this principle, the efforts of all the members of the organization should be directed towards common goals. Fayol stressed that, there should be a single superior and a uniform plan of action for a group of activities having the same objectives. He observed that, an organisation with two heads cannot survive long. Thus, the principle of unity of direction emphasizes the importance of common goals being pursued by all in a group activity under the direction of one head. The principle of unity of command refers to the need for each subordinate being accountable to one and only one superior. 3.5.6 Scalar Chain or Hierarch: Scalar Chain refers to the lines of authority from superior to subordinate. It establishes channels of authority or the purpose of communication and decision-making. Fayol favoured a chain of superiors, which should be followed scrupulously except in cases where it become detrimental to the interests of organization. Fayol also aware of the defects in the communication system existing in the governmental organization, which lead to enormous delay in the decision making process. Fayol suggests a method to avoid this. He suggests that an employee working in a department should be allowed to correspond directly with an employee of same cadre in other department without going up and down in the Scalar Chain with the permission of their superiors. 3.5.7 Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest: According to Fayol, management must ensure that the goals of the organization dominate the individual’s interests. The individual, though a worker should submerge his own goals. The goals of different groups, departments and sections should be subordinated to the larger organizational goals. This would result in the promotion of common good. 7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 critics. According, to them some of these principles are descriptive, while others are prescriptive. Structuralists attacked Fayol on the ground that he completely ignored the structure of an organization and hence, it is defective to some extent. Peter Drucker pointed that it is a mechanistic approach to the study of organizations. The Scholars belonging to the socio-psychological school alleged that, Fayol had totally ignored the psychological aspects of human beings. Fayol’s theory was also attacked by the critics of classical approach for its volume judgments which are not empirically valid. In spite of, several weaknesses and shortcomings, Henry Fayol’s philosophy and ideas relating to administration are unique in several respects. Fayol’s ideas stood the test of time remarkably well and they are more consistent with the general theory of bureaucracy. On any event Fayol strived to rationalize and scientific administrative thought. 3.8 Conclusion: The contribution of Henry Fayol to the development of management theory has been enormous and stood the test of time. It is also appropriate and relevant in the modern era of management. His though has been popularized as Fayolism and it is one of the first comprehensive statement of a general theory of management, developed. He is described as the father of management process school. His ideas have become universal parts of modern management concepts. Fayol’s theories are as rigid and inflexible, it practices and theories such as these which show flexibility in his theories of management. 3.9 Model Questions: 1. Examine the Principles of administration outlined by Henry Fayol. 2. Critically evaluate Henry Fayol’s Administrative Thought. 3. Henry Fayol is the Father of Modern Management Elucidate. 4. The contribution of Henry Fayol to the development of administrative Theory- Discuss. 3.10 Reference Books: 1. Ralph Clark Chandler (eds), A centennial History of the American Administrative Sate, The free Press, New York, 1988. 2. Jack Robin and James S. Bowman (eds), Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984. 3. Woodrow Wilson, “The study of Administration”, Political Science Quarterly Vol.50, December, 1941. 4. Robert T. Golambiewski, Public Administration as a Developing Disciptive Part I, Marcel, Dekker, New York, 1977. 5. Mohit Bhattacharya, Public Administration, World Press, New Delhi, 1987. 6. D.R. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 7. Maheswari, Shriram, Administrative Thinkers, Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi, 1998. 8. Fadia, B.L. and Fadia, Kuldeep, Public Administration, Sahitya Bhavan Publications, Agra, 2009. 8 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 9. Arora, Ramesh Kand Sogani, Meena Themes and Issues in Administrative Theory, Arihant Publishers, Jaipur, 1991 10. Sharma, M.P., and Sadana, B.L., Public Administration in Theory and practice, Kitab Mahal, New Delhi, 2010. 11. Public Administration, Concepts, Theories and Principles, Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad, 2011. 12. . D.R. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Lesson-04 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY –F.W. TAYLOR 4.0 Objectives: 1. Students would be able to learn about the contributions and development of management by F.W. Taylor. 2. Students would be able to know about Taylors theory of Scientific Management. Structure: 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 F.W.Taylor Life and Work 4.3 Scientific management Before Taylor 4.4 The Essential Scientific Management Theory 4.5 Assumptions of Scientific Management 4.6 F.W. Taylor’s contribution to scientific management 4.6.1 Objectives of Scientific Management 4.7 Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management 4.7.1 The Development of a True Science of Works 4.7.2 Scientific Selection of Workman 4.7.3 Training to the worker 4.7.4 Functional Foremanship 4.8 Time and Motion Study 4.9 Wages-Incentive System 4.10 Functional Organization 4.11 Mechanisms of Management 4.12 Impact of Scientific Management 4.13 Criticism on Taylor’s Scientific Management 4.14 Conclusion 4.15 Model Questions 4.16 Reference Books 4.1 Introduction: During the latter half of the nineteenth, century when the industrial revolution had reached a stage of maturity, the rapid expansion of business and industry were giving rise to new problems of industrial planning and management. The working conditions in the factories were chaotic. The work methods, tools and procedures were neither standardized nor planned for efficiency. Choice of methods of work was mainly left to the workers themselves resulting in considerable ad-hoc planning and inefficiency. There was a need to increase productivity which required in the long run a more rational and integrated approach to managerial class who were being called upon to face new problems not experienced earlier. In order to fulfill this need and find ways to rise industrial productivity, many experiments were conducted and prescriptions were developed by management thinkers. Scientific management theory was developed roughly at the same time when bureaucracy and administrative theory emerged. Both the scientific management and administrative theory are related aspects of the same phenomena. Public administration which rooted in political science had sought to place 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 5. To ensure a higher standard of living as a result of increased income to workers. 6. To assure an opportunity for the workers to improve their capacity through the scientific methods of work analysis and also through selection, training, assignment, transfer and promotion of workers. 7. To assure health as well as individually and socially decent conditions of work. 8. To develop the qualities of self-expression and self-realization among the workers through undertaking simulative research and evaluation, though understanding of plans and methods, and through the freedom of developing contacts afforded by the organization. 9. To assure by training and instructional foremanship the opportunity for workers to develop new and higher capacities and skills for promotion to higher positions. 10. To help the workers to develop self-confidence and self-respect through providing them with an opportunity for understanding their work. 11. To promote equal justice through the elimination of discrimination in wage rates etc. 12. To develop characteristic qualities through the proper conduct of work. To build the spirit of team work among the workers. 13. The standard time prescribed for each operation can be used as the task for each workman to achieve. Each unit of product can be produced at a designated standard of efficiency and at a standard cost. 4.7 Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management: The Scientific management stressed rationality, predictability, specialization and technical competence. Its focus was on the design and operation of production processes on the ‘shop’ level of the organization. Taylor’s identifies the basic social problem of his day as one of inefficiency. His objective is to increase efficiency by eliminating the difference between what is done by a “first-class” worker and an ordinary worker through high wages and low labour costs. Taylor argues that traditional styles of management, which employ coercive methods of supervision and an incentive system that discourage efficiency by lowering the wages and increased productivity, combine to faster systematic soldiering. Taylor contends that too much responsibility was placed on the worker but too little on the management. Under this management system a worker was simply hired and assigned specific tasks with little training or guidance from management. The result is inefficiency, the workers were not likely to know how best to perform their assigned tasks. To remove these deficiencies, Taylor proposes a management approach embodying a radically altered division of responsibilities between the management and workers. Taylor argues that there are two kinds of workmen; first-class workers and second-class workers. The first class workers are able and willing to do a task efficiently Taylor maintains that every man is a first-class worker at some kind of work. A second – class workers, is physically able to perform a task, but will not do so because of his laziness. Taylor disliked second-class worker. Management have responsibility to identify and develop first-class workers and place them in suitable positions, provide them with good working conditions and appropriate implements, and give them detailed instructions on the best methods of performing their tasks. Taylor believed in utilizing the knowledge of the workers in the performance of their tasks, he realized that they were not capable of developing a science of management. The management should become efficient before expecting efficiency from the workers. Taylor suggests that authority has to be exercised through scientific laws, not as an expressions of arbitrary rule. Taylor argued that the scientific management is to be implemented through the enforcement of standard methods, adoption of the best implements and achievement of cooperation among the management and workers. 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Taylor summarizes in this statement on the principles of scientific management. These principles are; 4.7.1 The Development of a True Science of Works: This needs a scientific investigation of a large daily task to be done by gathering traditional knowledge of the workers which is his life-long fixed capital and a most valuable property. The results of investigations have to be classified tabulated and reduced into rules and laws to find out the ideal working methods or what is called ‘one best way of doing job’ 4.7.2 Scientific Selection of Workman: To ensure the effective performance of the scientifically developed work, there is also need to select the worker scientifically possessing physical and intellectual qualities. 4.7.3 Training to the worker: Taylor insisted that every worker must be systematically and thoroughly trained. He felt that it is the responsibility of the management to develop the worker offering him opportunities for advancement to do the job to the fullest realization of his natural capacities. 4.7.4 Functional Foremanship: Taylor advocated for division of work between manager and worker thus, favoured a complete separation of planning function from doing function. He proposed using specialized experts known as “functional foreman”, each of whom was to be responsible for some specific aspect of the worker’s task, such as finding the best machine speed, deciding on job priorities or inspecting the work. The worker was to take orders from each of these foremen, depending upon whether the matter concerned plan machine speed or inspecting. The scientific management science would replace rule of thumb, harmony would replace friction, team work would replace individual efforts, maximum output would replace minimum output and each worker would be developed to his efficiency and prosperity. Taylor devoted his lifetime to develop a science of management. Taylor discovered a serious of innovations pertaining to the machinery of production, the organizational environment and the people who used the machinery of production, the organizational environment and the people who used the machinery. In order to successfully implement the philosophy of the above stated principles in the actual working of an organization, Taylor advocated the following techniques: 4.8 Time and Motion Study: Taylor believes that the basic cause of inefficiency is the ignorance on the part of management as to the proper time required to perform a task and systematic soldiering on the part of workers. According to scientific management is to establish appropriate standards for task performance. These standards are to be based on scientific analysis of tasks performed using the best methods rather than through observation of actual performance in the work-place. The primary tool of analysis in these investigations is time-and-motion studies. The general procedure employed in time and motion studies is to break down physical 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 activities into various component, specify the best routine for the performance of each component, and finally discover the most efficient method for recombining these parts into the more complex task. Especially time and motion studies involve the following steps; A. The worker is provided with the best implements and is appropriately placed. B. The task is divided into different units and the task is analyzed. C. A skilled worker while performing his task with the aid of stopwatch. The objective is to discover the quickest and best method for making each elementary element. Such investigation is to be guided by a series of “principles” of physical activity. D. The proper method of task performance is describe, record the time required to perform the task is determined. E. The elementary movements of the task are grouped in an appropriate sequence to maximize overall efficient task performance. F. An allowance is made for unavoidable delays. Taylor asserts that 20 to 27 percent should be added to the actual working time to allow for unavoidable delays. G. Allowance should be made for rest and the intervals of rest is required by every worker to recover from physical fatigue and also allowance should be made for the time a new employee takes to learn the job. The main element involved in the time and motion studies are thus the specification of the nature of a task, the time required for the performance of the task accounting to the capacity, speed and durability of the workers, how the task is to be done. Performance standards should be set basing on the performance of a first-class worker and that of an average worker with the standards being gradually increased as the worker becomes more familiar with the system. 4.9 Wages-Incentive System: Taylor’s incentive system distinguished feature is the prior establishment of standards of work performance through time and motion studies. Taylor felt that the actual method of reward was relatively unimportant part of the system. Taylor’s opinion, factors such as, special incentives, higher wages shorter working hours, better working conditions and individual rewards for the worker based on performance overshadow the importance of the specific method of payment. Taylor’s basic approach to incentives is, first, to give each worker a definite task with detailed instructions and an exact time standard for the performance of each element of the task. When this has been accomplished, the worker is to be paid extraordinary wages for performing the task in the allotted time and ordinary wages if the allotted time is exceeded. Taylor felt that the primary reason for the failure of previous incentive systems had been that they did not start with a good knowledge of the time required to perform a task. Taylor objected to profit sharing system as proposed by Towne and Halsey. Thus, Taylor evolved an incentive system which is based on prior standards of work performance with each worker rewarded on an individual basis his performance. So, under Taylor’s incentive system, success rewarded by higher pay and failure is penalized by financial loss. Nevertheless, Taylor’s system is distinguished from other systems of incentives because it is based on prior knowledge of what constituted a good work. 4.10 Functional Organization: Taylor’s prescriptions for organizational structure are a radical departure from the past ones. Previously, the military model of organization had prevailed, stressing unity of command at each level of the organization and culminating in a single executive at the top of an organization. Under this system, the foreman is responsible for a wide range of functions including hiring, training, supervising, and punishing his subordinates. 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 remained a major point of contention between Taylor and how critics, particularly the labour unions. Taylorism was also often attacked by the managers. Those who wanted quick promotions to the high managerial position without any merit based on higher education opposed Taylor’s stand, which advocated training by highly trained experts. The managers “did not appreciate his scornful comments on rule-if thumb method. Those who had fought their way to high managerial positions without the benefit of higher education were sensitive to Taylor’s stand that unless assisted by highly trained experts, they were unqualified to manage”. It is very interesting to note that Taylor had to resign from both Midvale steel works and Bethlehm steel, because of the friction with the company managers. Elton Mayo through his classic Howthorne investigations conclusively proved that it not the structural arrangements of the organization which are important for increasing productivity and efficiency in the organization. But it is the emotional attitude of the worker towards his work and his colleagues Taylor’s philosophy that men were generally lazy and try to avoid work has also been disputed. It is evident from Brown’s analysis that “work is an essential part of man’s life, since it is the aspect of life which gives him status and binds him to the society. When they do not like it, the fault lies in the psychological and social conditions of the job, rather than the worker”. Behaviouralists charged that Taylor’s methods of scientific management sacrifices the initiative of the worker, his individual freedom and the use of his intelligence and responsibility. Herbert A. Simon have described the scientific management as the “physiological organization theory”. 4.14 Conclusion: Despite the limitations concerning an adequate understanding of human psychology, sociology and the anatomy of work –Taylor’s work remains supremely important. Also the obvious contribution of scientific management was the overall improvement in factory or industrial management. By all accounts, Taylor must be regarded as a pioneer in the study of human beings at work. He was the first person to initiate the quest for the better performance at work. He was also first to apply quantitative techniques to the study of industrial management. Modern scientific management operations research, method study, time study, systems analysis, management by exceptions etc., are all part of Taylor’s heritage. Taylor’s scientific management become something of a movement. In an age of growing achievement in the physical sciences, it offered the hope of resolving industrial problems through the use of objective principles. For young and imaginative engineers, it provided an ethos and a mission in life. After the initial period of resistance, it conquered the citadels of old fashioned industrial management in the United States and had a tremendous effect on industrial practice. It even spread to Germany, England, France, USSR and other European countries. Scientific Management was supported in Russia and Taylor’s principles were included in the curriculum of the education and training of the engineers. Taylor, in brief, combined theory and practice, thought and experiment and doing and teaching all in one person. And in one life. His scientific management had a major influence on the growing reform and economy movement in public administration. 10 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 4.15 Model Questions: 1. Examine the contribution of F.W. Taylor to the development of management though with special reference to his Scientific Management Theory. 2. Critically examine F.W. Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management. 3. State the Scientific Management theory and criticize of F.W. Taylor. 4. What are the important features of Scientific Management focusing on the contribution of F.W. Taylor. 4.16 Reference Books: 1. Ralph Clark Chandler (eds), A centennial History of the American Administrative Sate, The free Press, New York, 1988. 2. Jack Robin and James S. Bowman (eds), Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984. 3. Woodrow Wilson, “The study of Administration”, Political Science Quarterly Vol.50, December, 1941. 4. Robert T. Golambiewski, Public Administration as a Developing Descriptive Part I, Marcel, Dekker, New York, 1977. 5. Mohit Bhattacharya, Public Administration, World Press, New Delhi, 1987. 6. D.R. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 7. Public Administration, Concepts, Theories and Principles, Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad, 2011. 8. Maheswari, Shriram, Administrative Thinkers, Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi, 1998. 9. Fadia, B.L. and Fadia, Kuldeep, Public Administration, Sahitya Bhavan Publications, Agra, 2009. 10. Arora, Ramesh Kand Sogani, Meena Themes and Issues in Administrative Theory, Arihant Publishers, Jaipur, 1991 11. Sharma, M.P., and Sadana, B.L., Public Administration in Theory and practice, Kitab Mahal, New Delhi, 2010. 12. . D.R. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Lesson-05 Administrative Management Theory: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick 5.0. Objectives: 1. Students would be able to know about contributions of Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. 2. Students would be able to describe Principles of Administrative Management and its critiques. Structure: 5.0. Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Life of Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick 5.3 Importance of Classical Theories 5.4 Luther Gulick Ideas 5.5 Importance of structure 5.6 Universality of experience 5.7 Scientific Validity 5.8 Luther Gulick Principles of Organization 5.8.1 Planning 5.8.2 Organization 5.8.3 Staffing 5.8.4 Directing 5.8.5 Coordinating 5.8.6 Reporting 5.8.7 Budgeting 5.9 Lyndall Urwick Principles of organization 5.10 Ingredients of Classical Theory 5.10.1 Division of Work 5.10.2 Departmentalization 5.10.3 Co-ordination 5.10.4 Human Behavior in Organizations 5.11 Classical Theories: A Critical Review 5.12 Conclusion 5.13 Model Questions 5.14 References 5.1 Introduction: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick had rich experience in the working of the civil service, military organizations and industrial undertakings. It is because of this, that one finds continued references to discipline and efficiency in their writings. They even borrowed certain concepts like line staff from the military organization. They were greatly influenced by the writings of F.W. Taylor and Henry Fayol. Their work entitled ‘Papers on the Science of Administration’ (1937) was considered as an important landmark in the evolution of public administration. 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 no principle in industrial organization as such that is not to be found in all the other spheres, but it is erroneous to infer that industrial organizers have borrowed these principles of organization from the older forms”. He emphasized that “a principle, if it is truly such, is a universal, and a universal cannot be borrowed. It simply has a way of applying itself, and this is ever true, by whatever name we may be pleased to call it. The classical approach on the contrary, formulated the principles in such a way that they are based on the premises that the underlying processes in the organizational structure and its working are the same and, therefore universal. It is maintained that there is a specific area in organization which can be separated from its environmental context and developed in such a way that it has universal application. 5.7 Scientific Validity: The principles of organization were developed based on experience gained in military and industrial organizations. The proponents of these principles are those who had rich experience in a variety of organizations. They formulated them after considerable observation of working with human organizations. In other words, the principles have come to be propounded not from philosophical exercises or figments of the imagination but from rigorous empirical observations. The classical approach is thus based on the premise that these principles have scientific validity. 5.8 Luther Gulick Principles of Organization: Inspired by earlier management thinkers particularly, F.W. Taylor and Henry Fayol, Gulick and Urwick developed the classical theory of organization on the basis of their belief that a science of administration is possible if certain principles are evolved basing on the practical experience of administrators. But, the notable feature of the theories constructed by these two authors is that they overemphasized the structure and process of organization giving least importance to human beings working in it. Gullick identified 4 basis of departmental organization (popularly known as 4 p): Purpose, Process, Person and Place. The principles of organization which are advocated by Luther Gulick as below: 1. Division of work 2. Basis of departmental organizations 3. Coordination through hierarchy 4. Deliberate coordination 5. Coordination through committees 6. Decentralization 7. Staff and line 8. Unity of Command 9. Delegation 10. Span of control Among the ten principles of administration listed out, Gulick lays special emphasis on division of work. According to him large scale organizations require many men to carry out their different tasks. Wherever many men work together best results can be achieved when there is a division of work among these men. The theory of organization, therefore, has to do with the promotion of coordination among different units of an organization created by the principle of division of work. Thus, Gulick says that “division of work and integration are the boot straps by which mankind lifts in the process of civilization”. Gulick made up an acronym POSDCORB which indicates those universal functions which every administrator should accomplish. Each letter in the POSDCORB stands for a task to be performed by the Chief Executive in the organization. 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 POSDCORB, each letter of which stands for a particular function i.e., P-stands for Planning, O-stands for Organization, S-stands for Staffing, D-stands for Directing, CO- stands for Co-ordination, R-stands for Reporting, B-stands for Budgeting. 5.8.1Planning: It needs a broad outline of the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose or the goal of the organization. 5.8.2 Organization: Establishment of a formal structure of authority through which division of work is done defined and coordinated for the achievement of the goals of organization. 5.8.3 Staffing: The whole personnel function of selecting and training the staff and maintaining favourable conditions of work. 5.8.4 Directing: This is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise. 5.8.5 Coordinating: The important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work. 5.8.6 Reporting: Keeping those to whom the executive is responsible, informed about what is going on which includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through records, research and inspection. 5.8.7 Budgeting: All the activities connected with the planning, accounting and control. In way POSDCORB outlines, an operational philosophy for public administration that has three consequences i.e., A. The division of work, both functionally and structurally is the primary mode for organizing public administration activities. B. There is an assumption, that Woodrow Wilson dichotomy between politics and administration, with a particular emphasis on the democratic those and the political context. C. Efficiency in terms of best utilization of resources appropriate to the larger political context has permanent value for public administration. 5.9 Lyndall Urwick Principles of organization: Lyndall Urwick identified eight principles of Administration to all organizations. The principles are: 1. The principle of objectives, that the organization should have a clear goal. 2. The principle of correspondence, that the authority and responsibility should be equal. 3. The principle of responsibility, that the superior is absolutely responsible for the work of subordinates. 4. The scalar principle that a pyramedical type of structure is built up in an organization. 5. The principle of span of control 6. The principle of specialization, that the limiting one’s work to a single function. 7. The principle of coordination 8. The principle of definition, that the clear prescription of every duty. 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 5.10 Ingredients of Classical Theory: From the above discussions, the following points came to the fore. These are also known as pillars of classical organization theory. 5.10.1 Division of Work: The division of work implies that work must be divided to obtain a clear cut specialization with a view to improve the performance of the organization. This brings about specialization. The more specialized a worker becomes in fulfilling his particular job, the more efficient the whole organization will be. For division of work, it is necessary to identify the work to be accomplished. Fayol has identified six such functions i.e., technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and managerial. 5.10.2 Departmentalization: Division of work is followed by its assignment to the individuals responsible for its performance. The classical theorists are concerned primarily with the way in which the work is assigned to the individuals so that their specialization can be used effectively. Gulick and Urwick have suggested four alternative basis for grouping work, purpose, process, persons and place. 5.10.3 Co-ordination: Co-ordination is the orderly arrangement of group effort to provide unity of action in pursuit of common purpose with economy and efficiency. All persons in the organization contribute to the organizational efficiency and this efficiency will be maximum when such individual’s efficiency is maximized and integrated. According to classical theorists, in its formalized model of the departmentalization, problems of coordination are eliminated because while set of activities to be performed is decided in advance and these activities are assigned to organizational units, the problem is solved. 5.10.4 Human Behavior in Organizations: These theorists take human beings in the organization as an inert instrument performing the tasks assigned to them. Further, there is a tendency to view personnel giver rather than a variable in the organization. To them, the employees put maximum work if they are satisfied, as such the remuneration and methods of payment should be fair and provide maximum satisfaction to employees and employers. Thus, physiological satisfaction is the basis work performance and efficiency. 5.11 Classical Theories: A Critical Review: Even though the classical theories represented by the work of Gulick and Urwick have had a significant impact on administrative theory, they were severely attacked by several scholars for their weaknesses and failures. Particularly, the principles of administration proposed by the classical theorists like Gulick and Urwick were subjected to scathing attack. Herbert Simon criticized the principles of classical theory point-by- point. Simon’s most basic argument is that the principles of administration offered by Gulick and Urwick are actually a series of contradictory proverbs which are valid only as universal statements about organizations and their operations. He also contended that for almost every principle there would be an equally acceptable contradictory principle. He pointedly criticized the five important principles proposed by the classical theorists 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Lesson-06 BUREAUCRATIC MODEL: MAX WEBER 6.0 Objectives: 1. Students would be able to understand the concept and model of Bureaucracy of Max Weber. 2. Students would be able to explain the elements and preferences of Weber’s bureaucracy. Structure:| 6.0 Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Life 6.3 Authority, Organization and Legitimacy 6.3.1 Legal Authority 6.3.2 Traditional Authority 6.3.3 Charismatic Authority 6.4 Bureaucracy 6.5 Weberian Model of Bureaucracy 6.5.1 The Impersonal Order 6.5. 2 Rules 6.5.3 Sphere of Competence 6.5.4 Hierarchy 6.5.5 Personal and Public Ends 6.5.6 Written Documents 6.5.7. Critical Analysis 5.6 Conclusion 5.7 Model Questions 5.8 References 6.1 Introduction: Max Weber, a German historian and sociologist was the first social scientist who made a systematic study of bureaucracy and it characteristics. As a matter of fact his name has become synonymous with bureaucracy. He occupies an unique place in the galaxy of social scientists who have attempted to explain the concept of bureaucracy. Everyone is always remember Max Weber whenever, there is a discussion on bureaucracy, Weberian Model of bureaucracy is a source of inspiration to thinkers on administration as it reflects the spirit of modern bureaucracy and is being used as a reference base for other models on bureaucracy. Max Weber’s name became synonymous with bureaucracy for the he enjoys a unique place in the galaxy of social scientists who have attempted to explain the concept of bureaucracy. 6.2 Life: Max Weber was born in 1864 in a family of textile manufacturers in Western Germany. He studied law and joined the Berlin University as an instructor in law. He remained as academician for the rest of his life. He wrote a number of papers on law, 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 society, and the political and economic factors prevalent at that time. His contribution to the theory of bureaucracy is a significant one. In the study of administrative theories, Max Weber’s bureaucracy, depicting the structure of the administrative system, provides an influential conceptual framework and a close historical understanding. Max Weber has become a central figure of both an intellectual understanding and a controversial figure for more than hundred years of evolution of administrative sciences, as most of the thinkers either only attempted to contradict him or formulated theories based on his model. This makes him popular among the students of the sociology, political science and public administration alike. 6.3 Authority, Organization and Legitimacy: Among Weber’s work on administration, his theories on domination, leadership and legitimacy merit special mention. He propounded these theories with a broad perspective, keeping in view of religion and society and the way they mould the pattern of leadership. Weber differentiated authority, power and control. For Weber, ‘authority’ was identical with the authoritarian power of common’. Weber has identified five essential components of authority. A. An individual or a body of individuals who rule. B. An individual or a body of individuals who are ruled. C. The will of the rulers to influence the conduct of the rules and an expression of that will or command. D. Evidence of the influence of the rulers in terms of the objective degree of command. E. Direct or indirect evidence of that influence in terms of the subjective acceptance with which the ruled obey the command. Authority exists as long as it is accepted as legitimate by the ruled. An organization thus, can rule or administer only when it has legitimacy. Explaining the authority of different kinds, in various organizations, Weber concluded that, “all administration means domination”. Weber categorized the persons in organizations as under: A. Those who are personally interested in seeing the existing domination continue because they derive benefits. B. Those who are accustomed to obey commands. C. Those who hold themselves in readiness for the exercise of these functions. D. Those who participate in that domination in the sense that the exercise of functions are divided among them. Weber defined administration as domination or exercise of authority while, most other administrative scientists have defined it as service or performance of duty. Weber prescribed legitimacy into three types i.e., Legal authority, Traditional authority, Charismatic authority. 6.3.1 Legal Authority: Manifestations of legal authority are found in organizations where rules are applied judicially and in accordance with ascertainable principles valid for all members in the organization. The members who exercise the power are the superiors and are appointed or elected by legal procedures to maintain the legal order. The persons subject to the commands are legal equals who obey ‘the law’. The ‘apparatus’ that implements the system of legal authority is also subject to the same principles. Thus organization is continuous and its members are subject to rules which delimit their authority with necessary controls over its exercise. 3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 6.3.2 Traditional Authority: Traditional authority drives its legitimacy from the acceptance of it’s since hoary post. The persons exercising authority generally are called “masters” who enjoy personal authority by virtue of their inherited status. Their commands carry legitimacy because of the customs, but they can also give orders based on their personal decision. Thus, conformity with customs and personal arbitrariness are two characteristics of traditional authority. The persons who obey the orders here are called ‘followers’. They carry the commands of the master out of sheer personal loyalty and a pious regard for his time-honoured status. 6.3.3 Charismatic Authority: It is the power exercised by a leader whether a prophet, a hero or a demagogue- substantiating the claim by virtue of his magical powers or heroism or other extraordinary gift or qualities. Charisma and its acceptance forms the basis of legitimacy in this system. The persons who receive the command obey the leader, because they believe in his extraordinary abilities rather than the stipulated rules or the dignity or a position. The charismatic leader select his disciples or followers as his officials based purely on their personal devotion to him rather than on their special qualification or status. Weber believed that, all these types of authority claim legitimacy as long as the curled’ accept them. The authority ceases to be legitimate when the rulers act or do what is illegal, ignore the traditions and lose charisma respectively. 6.4 Bureaucracy: The public offices in some form or other, were always adjuncts of organized Governments all over the world. For example, in China, even in 186 B.C., public offices existed and the personnel were recruited through competitive examinations even then. History is replete with instances and reasons to show that individuals appointed to government offices acquire some special characteristics, some of which were even universal. It was M de Gourney, a French economist, who used the word bureaucracy for the first time, during the first half of the 18th century. Several French writers, after de Gourney, have popularized the word Bureaucracy while the British social scientists started using the word only in the 19th century. J.S. Mill, an eminent political economist, included bureaucracy in his series of analysis. Mosca and Michels are two important sociologists who wrote extensively on bureaucracy. Yet, one is reminded of Max Weber whenever, there is a discussion on bureaucracy. The simple reason for this is that Weber was the first social scientist who made a systematic study of bureaucracy and its characteristics. Weberian model of bureaucracy is a source of inspiration for many because it largely reflects the spirits of modern bureaucracy. That is the reason Weberian model is being used as reference base for other models on bureaucracy. Weber never defined bureaucracy, he only described its characteristics. To him bureaucracy is “an administrative body of appointed officials”. Thus, in bureaucracy, he included explicably appointed officials leaving the elected ones only. As in the case of authority, Weber categorized bureaucracy into 1) patrimonial bureaucracy found in traditional and charismatic types of authority and 2) Legal rational bureaucracy found only in legal type of authority. The characteristics of legal-rational bureaucracy popularly known as Weberian model of bureaucracy are analysed further. Thus, the whole system of organization, including all those who occupy various positions from top to bottom are also subjected to same principles what govern the organizational behavior. Weber explains five related beliefs on which legal authority depends. They are: 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 6.5.6 Written Documents: The last principle of Weberian bureaucracy is that “the administrative acts, decisions and rules are formulated and recorded in writing even in cases where oral discussion is the rule or is even mandatory”. Documents make the administration accountable to people and provide a ready reference for future action. 6.5.7. Critical Analysis: The criticism against bureaucracy mainly, stems from inherent weaknesses of the model itself. It is said that, the very advantages claimed by Weber are turned against his own model. Among the critics Peter Blau, Warren G. Bennis, Chester Barnard, Philp Selzenick, Robert Merton, La Palambora, Talcott, R.V. Presthus, W. Delany and Simon are very prominent. 1. The regulation of official behavior of an employee through formal specifications automatically limits his capacity to adopt to changing circumstances not envisaged by those who drew up the rules. This would also indicate that Weber’s model fails to describe the effective role of officials. This is what is called trained in capacity of the officials. 2. The structure, its hierarchy and rules, which is rational in the Weberian sense can easily generate consequences, which are unexpected and detrimental to the attainment of objective of organization. 3. Weber ignored the environmental factors that influence the behavior of organization in their functioning. 4. Elements of bureaucratic organization, such as rules which conduce towards efficiency in general produce inefficiency in specific instances and in general, produce timidity, conservatism and techniques. 5. Weber’s concept of bureaucracy makes certain implicit assumptions about human motivation which are not necessarily valid in nor-western environments 6. Bureaucracy may lead to red-tapism, unnecessary delays and procedural rigmaroles. 7. In the context of welfare and developmental administration the bureaucratic model officers only negative benefits. It makes the official into a cog in the administrative machine with little scope for innovation. 8. The impersonal relations with clients and formal behavior with colleagues produce undesirable consequences. It is natural that informal relations and unofficial practices develop among the members of the organization, and these are highly significant in achieving the objectives of the organization. But Weber has totally ignored them. 6.6 Conclusion: The critics have argued that, the Weberian modes of bureaucracy lacks empirical validity, particularly when it is related to modern administration. But Weber constructed his ideal type keeping in mind the conditions of Germany in mind during his times. To say that it does not suit the modern conditions is not appropriate because at the start of the 20th century, nobody including Weber could ever visualize the changes that have come about in the last six or seven decades which have altered the very nature of the society. Martin Albrow said that in terms of the influence it has exerted and the argument it has stimulated, Weber’s writing on bureaucracy is more important than the sum total of the contributions made by various social scientists on bureaucracy. Yet there is a dearth of detailed exposition of his work, as opposed to straight forward borrowing of particular ideas on the one hand , and critical discussions of some fragment of his writings on the other. Whatever, may be the criticism against Weber, his ideal type 7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 bureaucracy has been, and is, the single most dominant, conceptual framework in the study of public administration. Weber provides a basic methodology and a frame work to analyse the existing structures of various social organizations. Today we see in practice in all societies of the world, Weber being proved correct when he said that the societies which are once governed by bureaucracy can never get rid of it. The Afro-Asian countries starting from India could get of the alien rules, but not the bureaucratic practices established by the colonial rulers. Weberian model, no doubt includes both positive and negative elements. Elements such as selection through merit and technical qualifications and complete obscene of appropriation of official positions by the incumbents come under positive category. There are elements such as impersonal order, rules, written documents that form the negative category. As the negative elements are given greater importance in the model, the positive elements get gulfed and enfeebled by the huge stream of negativism. Any one mention of the term ‘bureaucracy’ immediately brings to the fore, the name of Max Weber. He can be praise and criticized but he cannot be ignored. 6.7 Model Questions: 1. Critically evaluate the Weberian model of bureaucracy. 2. Examine the concept of Max Weber bureaucracy model. 3. Critically examine the elements of Max Weber bureaucracy preferences. 6.8 References: 1. Shriram Maheswari, Administrative Thinkers, Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi, 1998. 2. Albrow, Martin, bureaucracy, Macmillan, London, 1970. 3. Public Administration, Concepts, Theories and Principles, Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad, 2011. 4. Merton, Robert K.(ed), Reader in bureaucracy, Free Press, Glencoe, 1952. 5. Balu, Peter, M. bureaucracy in Modern Society, Random House, New York, 1962. 6. Dr. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 Lesson-07 CONFLICT RESOLUTION: MARY PARKER FOLLETT 7.0 Objectives: 1. Students would be able to know about the conflict Resolution and contributions of resolutions of Mary Parker Follett. 2. Students would be able to learn about the Follett’s views on leadership, formal and informal Organizations and Principles of Planning. Structure: 7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Constructive Conflict: 7.3 Base of Integration 7.4 Obstacles to Integration 7.5 Giving Orders 7.6 Leadership 7.7 The Psychology of Control 7.8 Management as a Profession 7.9 Individualism in a Planned Society 7.10 Conclusion 7.11 Model Questions 7.12 References: 7.1 Introduction: Mary Parker Follett was a creative writer with a sporadic ability for give-away original ideas in a simple and understandable form. She was born in 1868 at Boston, in U.S.A. she occupies a very significant place in the assembly of administrative thinkers. She was influenced by the classical thinkers like Henry Fayol, Ordway Tead, Lyndall Urwick, and Oliver Sheldon. She established many principles of organizations and convened people about the practical usefulness of these principles in dealing with current social problems. She published The Speaker of the House of Representatives (1909), The New State (1920),Creative Experience(1924), and Dynamic Administration (1941); the last one was the posthumously edited by Metcalf and Urwick. According to Mary Follett, battles in organizations are predictable. It gives rise to difference of opinions and interests. As such, conflict is neither good nor bad but provides opportunities for good or bad results. Follett pronounced that managers must learn to overcome conflict in a positive manner. She has recommended three methods to make a decision or dealing with organizational conflict. The first one is domination, which means, victory by one side over the other. The second method is compromise, that is, each side submits some part of what it, wants it in an order to reach an understanding. The third one is most important aspect in solving the conflict is integration, by which a new solution is found which satisfies the real needs of both the sides and neither sides sacrifices anything. In domination, one side has to be overpowered by the other for resolving conflict, while in compromise, there is a mid-point settlement between the requirements and needs of both the parties a situation in which may not be quite pleasant to either party. Follett’s analysis suggests, integration is 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 D. Issuing orders, especially detailed ones, removes responsibility from the person to whom the order is issued. Follett uttered that responsibility be spread as wide as possible. E. An order which is in response to the law of the situation must be taken into account of developing situation and management’s part in making it evolve. Follett views on issuing order noticed that there are number of inconsistencies in her proclamations. In this concern, she discoursed that managers must find the principles underlying the diverse ways of issuing orders and then choose which principles should be followed and ultimately note results. 7.6 Leadership: Miss Follett” had written two papers on leadership, the first one was entitled ‘Discrepancies in Leadership Theory and Practice’ and another one is ‘Leader and Expert’. A mutual relationship is the main characteristic of leadership, Follett held the conjecture that, the leader not only inspires his group, but is also influenced by it. The leader must also be influenced by the experts within the organization. A good leader creates group power rather than exercising personal power. Follett advocated that, the form of organization towards which business was nursing disheartens the indiscriminate use of power, because system based neither on equality nor on arbitrary authority, but on functional unity. In such a system, while making decisions, the voice of the experts are taken into justification by the leader. In theory of leadership the leader had a convincing personality, uses personal power and obliges others to do his will, Follett suggested that, orders do not always directly arise from the leaders wishes, they arise from the situation of work, and the subordinates may contribute to this situation. In brief, leadership, in such situation goes to the man with the sound knowledge of the situation, who understands, its total importance and who can see it through. Follett expressed the importance of the fact that leaders are not just born, but in fact they could be developed through education and understanding dynamics and human behavior. 7.7 The Psychology of Control: Miss Follett was presented an important paper on the subject of the psychology of control in March 1927. Before coming to an understanding of the mechanism of control, one should first try to know the nature of unities since effective unity by which organization causes can work out to control. According to Follett, Unity can determined not only by their components, but by the relating them with one another. Follett highlighted that the nature or reciprocal activity in creating unity, since the study of social situation will be insufficient it does not take this into account. Generally, every social process has three interconnected aspects like, interacting, unifying and emerging. These three aspects work together to develop unity. Follett felt that in the real life, their influences cannot be separated form each other. The similar activity progresses the whole and the parts at the same time. The result of this interaction and unification of parts are the emergence of new situation and a change in the sectors that are involved in the interaction. Therefore, the need to realize unity arises because unity is the origin of control. 7.8 Management as a Profession: Mary Parker Follett wrote an important paper entitled “Who must Business Management Develop in Order to Become a Profession? One of her condition was that 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 management must be observe profession as a function or service to the community and can be exercised exclusively for private gain. She upheld that a profession was exercised as one of the necessary functions of society and was not an attempt made for private gain. In this connection, she criticized the old idea that a business man made money for himself in the time and then rendered service to the community after gathering enough money to afford being selfless. The services of businessman are as important like those of lawyers, teachers, doctors and engineers. The real service of businessmen should not be production only, but also the welfare of the society which is as important as the process of production. According to Follett, business must be based on the application of an accepted a proven body of knowledge and philosophies. This includes a thorough and constant research and is likely to enable correction of managerial methods and techniques. To obtain profit from such an experience, each company should have a management research analyst whose duties are to classified and understand managerial experiences. A manager must contribute to the development of his profession by participating actively in management associations, but by every action he does during the day, i.e., the way of taking decisions, issuing orders and the way in which he organizes committees of the organization. 7.9 Individualism in a Planned Society: The economic interdependence of men is the fact which is recognized today generally. This acknowledgement makes the combined planning on a national or even an international level imperative. Follett observed that central planning imposed from the national level over the local level was doomed to failure. She believed that coercion was not the conflicting of Laussez fair. National planning should be a mechanism of enable the coordinating process. Follett analyses four essential principles for international and national planning. A. Follet recommended coordination in the early stages, she meant that direct contract must begin in the developmental stages of the policy process, because policy design and policy adjustment are two separate processes and consequently, the process of adjusting policy cannot begin after the separate policies have been designed. This is a vital principle which is largely ignored in the schemes for national planning. B. Coordination by direct contact of the responsible people concerned, i.e., national planning should provide direct contact between responsible heads of industry, instead of up and down the line through the chief executive. Under such a system, individual freedom would be safely guarded and the heads of industry would form their own control. C. Coordination as a continuing process, i..e, only through continuous coordination machinery, problems, can be solved in a rational manner. D. Coordination as the mutual linking of all the factors in a situation shows that the process of coordination, If this principle is applied at national planning and to the industrial organizations of a country, they would learn how to interlace their points of view and their various policies. Thus the fullest possible scope to individualism will be given in this scheme of coordination. 7.10 Conclusion: Follett’s innovative ideas have influenced the field of conflict resolution. Mary Parker Follett was a true management philosopher. The sources of Follett’s ideas are found according to her time. As she moved about consulting with various industrial and 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 political leaders, she recognized that a new principle of association was needed, because men had not yet learnt how to live together. She called this new principle the “group concept” as Follett was a pioneer who helped to bridge the gap between the mechanistic approach of Taylor and the contemporary approach of human relations. 7.11 Model Questions: 1. Discuss about Mary Parker Follett conflict resolution. 2. Discuss about the contribution of Follett’s on Conflict management. 3. Discuss abut leadership in the view of Foleltt. 4. Describe about principles of planning in the view of Follett. 7.12 References: 1. L.Urwick and E.F.L., Brech, The making of Scientific Management, Vol. I, sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd, Londan, 1955. 2. L.Urwick, the Golden Book of Management, Newman Limited, London, 1956. 3. Prasad Ravindra D., Administrative Thinkers, Light& Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1980. 4. Dr. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 For cooperation there must be an objective and can be called as “purpose” of an organization in other words it can be said system, coordination and cooperation needed for an organization. According to Barnard, “an objective purpose that can serve as the basis for a cooperative system is the one that is believed by the contributors to be the determined purpose of the organization”. The difference has to be made between organizational purpose and individual motive. Common purpose is impersonal, external and objective. This is dynamic process which translates purpose in action, the methods of communication may be verbal or written or observational. Individuals in the organization interact on their personal relationships rather than organizational purpose. Such interactions would lead to fulfillment some personal requirements, such relations become systematize and resulted into informal organizations. Barnard describes informal organizations as the cumulative of personal contracts and interactions and the connected groupings of peoples. Such organisations are indefinite, structure less and are a shapeless, mass of varied densities. That type of informal organisation will have a thoughtful impact on the members of the formal organisations, brings a constant interaction between the formal and informal organisations. Such informal organisations, to be operative must establish formal organisations within it. Intern, formal organisation create informal organisations as a means of communications and to protect the individuals from the domination of the formal organisation. 8.4 The Theory of Authority: Barnard does not agree with traditional concept of authority and introduces acceptance as the basis of his theory of authority. He defines authority as “the character of the communication (order) in a formal organisation by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor or member of the organisation as governing or determining what he does or is not to do so far as the organisation is concerned”. Individual in the organisations accept authority only when four conditions obtain simultaneously: 1 When the communication understood, the communications cannot be understood unless they are intelligible, as most of the communications in the organisations are general and intelligible. 2 Consistency with organizational purpose, any communication is not compatible with the purpose of the organisation is unlikely to be accepted. 3 Compatibility with personal interest, if the communications are detrimental to the personal interest of the individuals they have little chance of acceptability. 4 Physical and mental ability to comply, in cases where a person is unable to comply with an order, it will generally be disobeyed or discharged. 8.5 Fiction of Authority: The competence of the organisation depends upon the point to which the individual accepts orders. Normally, the authority of a communication will not be denied, as they know it is a threat to all individuals who receive a net benefit from the organisation. The fiction of authority established the belief that individual accept orders from superiors because they want to avoid making issues of such orders and avoid experiencing personal subservience or less of personal position with their fellows. The fiction of superior authority appears to be essential for two important reasons. Firstly, the fiction of authority allows the individual to envoy upwards or to the organisation, responsibility for what is an organisation decision. Secondly, disobeying authority for personal advantage, must be constructed as deliberate attacks on the organisation itself. 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 8.6 The System of Coordination: Barnard holds that, superior is not the authority and he does not have any authority. A communication may not be authoritative unless it is effort or an action of the organisation. Authority depends upon the cooperative personal attitudes of individuals upon the system of communication in the organisation. The following factors control the character of the communication system as the system of objective authority 1 The channel of communication should be known 2 Objective authority requires a definite formal channel to every member of organisation 3 The complete line of communication should usually be used 4 The line of communication must be as direct or as short as possible 5 The persons who as communicators such as officers, supervisory heads must be sufficient 6 The line of communication should not be interrupted 7 Every communication must be authenticated. In the modern organizational literature the concept of authority occupies a noticeable place. Numerous theories, concepts and models were developed in different social science disciplines to examine the meaning, role, nature types and limitations of authority in an organization. It has to be notable from other types of influence-power and persuasion. Weber defines power as “the probability that one factor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance”. Therefore power is more complete term which includes control through the use of risk or physical pressure and it comprises to regulate to operate conditions in such a way that others are compulsory to act in his interest, rather than their own. Weber defines authority as “the probability that certain specific commands from a given source will be obeyed by a given group of persons”. Consequently, it is obvious that authority gets deliberate obedience from the subordinates who respond to his orders or commands because of their trust in the lawfulness of those orders. The causes of authority may be a single individual or may be an objective institution such as laws. Weber classified authority into three types based on their foundations of legitimacy. Weber classified authority into traditional, charismatic and legal-rational types. These three types of authority are based on three different base types of legitimacy. They are as follows 1. Traditional authority latent on recognized belief in the sanctity of age old traditions. 2. Legal-rational authority resting on the belief of legality of the rules and the capability of the leader to issue orders under the rules. 3. Charismatic authority resting on the extraordinary, or exceptional or supernatural qualities or character of the leader. Influenced by Weber, Chester Bernard tried to analyze different aspects of authority. He established a new concept of authority based on human nature. According to Barnard, authority in an organization, more connected to the information aspects over which authorities have no control. He opined that each member in the organization holds a definite “zone of indifference”, of recognition which inspires their readiness to follow the orders of the superior authority. Thus, the ability of superiors to regulate and direct the workers, depends upon the formal authority as well as the outlooks of the employees. Barnard also argues that the modern manager always tries to upsurge the employees “zone of acceptance” by offering them various type of incentives. In this connection, Barnard developed a new conceptualization of authority based on information, group relations and human aspects. 8.7 Bernard Views on Authority: 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 The concept of authority that Barnard described, perhaps the most significant contribution. Bernard defines authority as “the character of a communication in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to, or ‘member’ of, the organization as governing the action he contributes that is a determining that he does or is not to do so far as the organization is concerned”. In other words, authority exist in a relationship between a superior and a subordinate, not in a static position; and it is successfully exercised only when accepted, not on issues of a command. Bernard’s concept of organization is based on a system of exchange. Since continuing participation is dependent on the assessment of a positive balance of encouragements over required contributions, the participant has the alternative to refuse to obey organizational authority, based on the threat of taking out from the organization. Bernard’s definition of authority gives rise to two vital points like, firstly, Bernard highlights that the point of acceptances is the most important aspect of an authority. The decision to obey a command lies with the person to whom it is addressed. Secondly, he makes authority an essential part of the organization and not something consulted from outside. Bernard thought that, authority was exercised through communication and communication will be accepted authoritatively if it fulfills the following four essential conditions. They are as follows: A. Intelligibility B. Consistency C. Compatibility D. Feasibility Bernard lays down four conditions for the effective exercise of authority, all of which emphasize the role of the subordinate in the authority relationship and the importance of effective communication. Principally, the subordinate must understand the command. Secondly, at the time of the decision whether to accept authority or not, the subordinate must rely on that the command is constant for the purpose of the organization. Thirdly, the subordinate must trust the command to be reliable with his or her personal interests as a whole. Fourthly, the subordinate must be mentally and physically capable of obeying with the command. Hence, communication will perform a key role in the exercise of authority. Bernard viewed that acceptance is the dire aspect in the exercise of authority. He further stated that, acceptance is dependent upon net encouragements, the essential circumstance for the effective exercise of authority. Bernard stresses the individual nature of the exercise of authority and also highlights the possibility of non-acceptance of the authority. Certainly, Bernard observed that, exercise of authority is often futile and breaking the rules under certain conditions and would be a moral responsibility of the subordinates. This finally suggests that, the subordinate’s response to organizational directives are not prearranged. Bernard indicates that the subordinates respond to the authority in several ways. They can accept a directive without consideration of its merits or accept only after consideration of the merits, and finally reject. Bernard describes the first three responses as the “zone of indifference”. The zone of indifference comprises acceptance without consideration of merits and this constitutes an area in which orders are automatically obeyed. Bernard argues that a sizable zone of indifference among subordinates is necessary to simplify the smooth process of the organization. Bernard emphasizes, the subjective nature of authority and acknowledges the possibility that, orders may in some cases should be disobeyed, he overlooks the importance of the objective nature of authority. Objective authority which is based on position or competence, is important for any organization, and when an authority of position is joined with authority of competence, it becomes very effective. 8 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 (a) Communication of unintelligible facts, opinions, suggestions and suspicions which cannot easily pass through formal channels; (b) To minimize excessive clicks of political influence; (c) To promote self-discipline of the group; and (d) To make possible the development of important personal influences in the organization. 8.8.2 Securing the Essentials Services from Individuals: The task of securing essential services from individuals has two main aspects viz., bringing of persons into cooperative relationship with the organization, and eliciting of services after they have been brought into that relationship. Every organization in order to survive must deliberately attend to the maintenance and growth of its authority to do things necessary for coordination, effectiveness and efficiency. Barnard uses ‘efficiency’ in the specialized sense of an organization’s capacity to offer effective inducements in sufficient quantities to maintain the equilibrium of the system. 8.8.3 Formulation of Purpose and Objectives: The third function of the executive is to formulate and define purpose, objectives and ends of the organization. The purpose of the organization must be accepted by all the contributors to the system of efforts. Assumption of responsibility and delegation of authority are crucial aspects of the functions of the executive. At every level below, purpose, objectives and direction get redefined with reference to that level, the time and the results to be accomplished. Purpose is defined in terms of specifications of the work to be done and specifications are made when and where work is being done. The formulation and definition of purpose is a widely distributed function and only the general part of which is executive. The formulation and redefining of purpose requires sensitive system of communication, imagination, experience and interpretation. The functions of the executive are elements in an organic whole and their combination makes an organization. This combination involves two inducements to action: (a) executive functions are partly determined by the environment of the organization, and (b) it depends on the maintenance of vitality of action, that is, the will to effort. In short, the executive role is mainly related to the synthesis of physical, biological and crucial factors 8.9 Conclusion: Chester Bernard’s Neo-classical model on authority throws a light on different aspects of authority obtaining in formal organizations. Even though his authority theory is abstract, yet it provides lot of practical values to the modern managers. His acceptance theory of authority which was developed systematically on the basis of practical experience and has great tolerance even to the present day executives. The influence of this theory on both the practitioners and academics in the field of administration and management are so profound, it is regarded as a pioneering one even today. 8.10 Model Questions: 1. What are the important aspects of Neo classical model of Bernard concepts? 2. Critically examine Chester Barnard’s concept of authority. 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ANU ONLINE EDUCATION ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY, NAGARJUNANAGAR, GUNTUR, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-522510 11 References: 1. Bertram M. Gross, the Managing of Organisations: The Administrative Struggle, New York, Free Press, 1964. 2. D.Gvishiani, Organisation and Management: A Sociological Analysis of Western Theories, Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1972. 3. R.J.S Baker, Administrative Theory and Pubic Administration, London, Hutchinson University library, 1972. 4. Prasad Ravindra D., Administrative Thinkers, Light& Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1980. 5. Dr. Prasad Others (eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989.