Issues in distance learning, Summaries of Environmental science

Download Issues in distance learning and more Summaries Environmental science in PDF only on Docsity! International JI. of Educational Telecommunications (1995) 1(4), 337-365 Issues in Distance Learning LORRAINE SHERRY Graduate School of Education University of Colorado at Denver P.O. Box 173364, Denver, CO 80217-3364, USA This review of literature and research into the effectiveness of distance education systems deals with a number of factors which affect their success or failure. These include the influ- ence of distance learning theory upon instructional design and delivery, redefining the roles of partners in distance edu- cation teams, media selection, technology adoption, change implementation, methods and strategies to increase interac- tivity, inquiry, and active learning, learner characteristics and modes of learning, teacher mediation and learner support, op- erational issues, policy and management issues, and cost/ benefit tradeoffs. It is intended as a companion piece to Sher- ry and Morse’s (1994) training needs assessment. Distance education technologies are expanding at an extremely rapid rate. Too often, instructional designers and curriculum developers have be- come enamoured of the latest technologies without dealing with the under- lying issues of learner characteristics and needs, the influence of media upon the instructional process, equity of access to interactive delivery s tems, and the new roles of teacher, site facilitator, and student in the di: tance learning process. This review of literature and current information related to distance learning is an expansion and update of Schlosser and Anderson’s (1994) literature review for the Iowa model of distance education. Additional re- ports were obtained through the Pacific Mountain Network, the ERIC data- base, electronic communications via Internet with administrators of open universities and open learning agencies throughout the world, collections 338 Sherry of manuscripts and documents in the Department of Instructional Technol- ogy and Special Education at the University of Colorado at Denver, and personal communications with distance education developers at profession- al conferences as well as school districts in the Greater Denver area. It is intended as a companion piece to Sherry and Morse’s (1994) training needs assessment, as well as background information for other projects in telecommunications and distance learning. The issues addressed in this report reflect some of the primary re- search issues covered by Schlosser and Anderson (1994), those stressed in the Far View I-IV (1994) videotape series, descriptions and evaluations of current distance education delivery systems by key administrators of open universities and learning agencies, and issues deemed important by partici- pants in Sherry and Morse’s (1994) training needs assessment. These in- clude distance learning theory, salient characteristics of successful delivery systems, redefining the roles of distance education partners, media-based challenges and design considerations, technology selection and adoption, effective communication, strategies to increase interactivity, visual imag- ery, and active learning, learner characteristics, mentoring and learner support, change implementation, operational, policy, and management is- sues, and cost/benefit tradeoffs. We will start with some definitions, history, theories, and systems of distance education, and then explore methods and strategies for designing and delivering instruction at a distance. Next, we will discuss the charac- teristics of distance learners, preferred modes of learning, learner support systems, and others factors which influence their success or failure. We will then deal with operational issues, including technology adoption and the roles of key personnel. Finally, we will address management and policy decisions. WHAT IS DISTANCE EDUCATION? The terms “distance education” or “distance learning” have been ap- plied interchangeably by many different researchers to a great variety of programs, providers, audiences, and media. Its hallmarks are the separa- tion of teacher and learner in space and/or time (Perraton, 1988), the voli- tional control of learning by the student rather than the distant instructor (JJonassen, 1992), and noncontiguous communication between student and Issues in Distance Learning 341 posing views which impact instructional design: Symbol-processing and situated cognition (see Bredo, 1994, for a full description and comparison of these two approaches) . Until recently, the dominant view has been the traditional, informa- tion processing approach, based on the concept of a computer performing formal operations on symbols (Seamans, 1990). The key concept is that the teacher can transmit a fixed body of information to students via an external representation. She represents an abstract idea as a concrete image and then presents the image to the learner via a medium. The learner, in turn, perceives, decodes, and stores it. Horton (1994) modifies this approach by adding two additional fac- tors: The student’s context (environment, current situation, other sensory input) and mind (memories, associations, emotions, inference and reason- ing, curiosity and interest) to the representation. The learner then develops his own image and uses it to construct new knowledge, in context, based on his own prior knowledge and abilities. The alternative approach is based on constructivist principles, in which a learner actively constructs an internal representation of knowledge by interacting with the material to be learned. This is the basis for both sit- uated cognition (Streibel, 1991) and problem-based learning (Savery & Duffy, in press). According to this viewpoint, both social and physical in- teraction enter into both the definition of a problem and the construction of its solution. Neither the information to be learned, nor its symbolic de- scription, is specified outside the process of inquiry and the conclusions that emerge from that process. Prawat and Floden (1994) state that, to im- plement constructivism in a lesson, one must shift one’s focus away from the traditional transmission model to one which is much more complex, in- teractive, and evolving. The Far View Project (1994) has implemented this approach by creating distance learning environments in which students construct knowledge under the guidance of the site facilitator, and then re- port their progress back to the studio teacher via a 2-way video link. Though these two theories are totally different in nature, effective de- signers usually start with empirical knowledge: Objects, events, and prac- tices which mirror the everyday environment of their designated learners. Then, with a firm theoretical grounding, they develop a presentation which enables learners to construct appropriate new knowledge by interacting with the instruction. To quote the AI researcher, Herbert A. Simon, “Hu- man beings are at their best when they interact with the real world and draw lessons from the bumps and bruises they get” (Simon, 1994). Schlosser and Anderson (1994) refer to Desmond Keegan’s theory of distance education, in which the distance learning system must artificially 342 Sherry recreate the teaching-learning interaction and reintegrate it back into the instructional process. This is the basis of their lowa Model: To offer to the distance learner an experience as much like traditional, face-to-face in- struction, via intact classrooms and live, two-way audiovisual interaction. In contrast, the Norwegian Model has a long tradition of combining medi- ated distance teaching with local face-to-face teaching (Rekkedal, 1994). Hilary Perraton (1988) defines the role of the distance teacher. When, through the most effective choice of media, she meets the distance students face-to-face, she now becomes a facilitator of learning, rather than a com- municator of a fixed body of information. The learning process proceeds as knowledge building among teacher and students. (See Scardamalia & Be- reiter, 1994, for an example of electronic knowledge building discussions.) Distance education systems now involve a high degree of interactivity between teacher and student, even in rural and isolated communities sepa- rated by perhaps thousands of miles. The Office of Technology Assessment stresses the importance of interactivity: Distance learning allows students to hear and perhaps see teachers, as well as allowing teachers to react to their students’ comments and questions (US Congress, 1988). Moreover, virtual learning communities can be formed, in which students and re- searchers throughout the world who are part of the same class or study group can contact one another at any time of the day or night to share ob- servations, information, and expertise with one another (VanderVen, 1994; Wolfe, 1994). Systems of Distance Education Traditionally, we think of distance learners as adults. Whole institu- tions of higher learning, such as the United Kingdom’s Open University, ‘Vancouver's Open Leaming Agency, Norway’s NKS and NKI Distance Education organizations, Florida’s Nova University, and a host of others, have been dedicated to providing distance education at the post-secondary level for decades. The University of South Africa (UNISA), in Praetoria, serving both black and white students, has had a successful distance learn- ing program for decades. The Televised Japanese Language Program, de- veloped at North Carolina State University, provides instruction in Japa- nese to ten colleges and universities in five Southeastern states (Clifford, 1990). The adult learner tradition is now changing as new programs, such as the US. Federal government’s Star Schools Program, come into exist- ence to serve the K-12 student population. Issues in Distance Learning 343, At the elementary and middle school levels, distance learning usually takes the form of curriculum enrichment modules and ongoing telecommu- nications projects. Some examples of current projects are: De Orilla a Oril- la, National Geographic Kids Network, Biomes Exchange Project, Earth Lab, Ask Professor Math, and Ask A Scientist (Barron, Hoffman, Ivers, & Sherry, 1994; US. Congress, 1988). These projects are popular in second- ary schools, too. Other modules are television-based, with the teacher as fa- cilitator. Students work in collaborative groups, using manipulatives and hands-on activities in a distance learning environment (Pacific Mountain Network, 1994). At the secondary level, locally or federally funded distance education addresses the needs of small rural school districts or underserved urban school districts. Some secondary school students may enroll in courses to meet graduation requirements which their own districts are unable to offer; some take advanced placement, foreign language, or vocational classes; others may be homebound or disabled. Due to the low student enrollment at each individual high school in Chinese and German courses, Denver Public Schools, a large urban district, offers both of these courses via their 2-way audio, 1-way video link. In many instances, talented or gifted high school students have been selected to attend distance classes because of their high academic ability and capacity for handling independent work. This makes classroom man- agement easier, but it may disenfranchise students who lack discipline or time management skills. The resulting inequity of access then becomes a policy problem, not a technology problem. Although technology is an integral part of distance education, any suc- cessful program must focus on the instructional needs of the students, rath- er than on the technology itself. It is essential to consider their ages, cultur- al and socioeconomic backgrounds, interests and experiences, educational levels, and familiarity with distance education methods and delivery sys- tems (Schamber, 1988). Students usually adapt more quickly than their teachers to new technology. On the other hand, teachers who have begun to feel comfortable with the equipment don’t mind having their students teach them new tips and tricks (Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow, 1992). The most important factor for successful distance learning is a caring, con- cerned teacher who is confident, experienced, at ease with the equipment, uses the media creatively, and maintains a high level of interactivity with the students. 346 Sherry White (1987) adds that if complex issues are presented in short units, through powerful images which may occur in any order, the end result may be oversimplification and superficiality. Students must learn to discrimi- nate between “junk” information and quality information, to judge its reli- ability or bias, to identify distortions and sensationalism, to distinguish facts from persuasion, and to understand how the technology itself shapes the information it carries (p. 60). Effective Communication Ben Shneiderman (1992) cautions all instructional designers to begin with an understanding of their intended users, and to recognize them as in- dividuals whose outlook is different from the designer’s own. Horton (1994) states the golden rule for designers of instructional vi- suals: “communicate unto others as they would communicate unto them- selves” (p. 32). In other words, if you want the learner to construct an idea which is similar to yours, then use an image for your presentation which will trigger a similar idea in the learner’s mind, in the context of the learn- ing environment and the learner’s prior experiences. Needless to say, no two leamers will form the same idea, nor is it likely that their idea will be the same as that of the designer. How can this problem be solved? The key to good instructional design lies in the image presented. To quote Marshall McLuhan, “the medium is the message.” Horton (1994) notes that it is up to the designer to e use advance organizers to create an appropriate context for instruction, and e select effective images, using appropriate objects with relevant at- tributes, that will convey the same idea to the user as they did to the designer. METHODS AND STRATEGIES Guided Practice The more familiar teachers are with the instructional design and deliv- ery process, the more effective their presentations will be. On a practical note, they need training in instructional message design, strategies for de- Issues in Distance Learning 347 livering instruction on-camera, methods of diversifying types of presenta- tion, selecting various mixes of student-teacher activities and interactions, choosing situations and examples which are relevant to their students, and assessing the level of leaming by distant students. They also need plenty of guided, hands-on practice developing and delivering courseware using au- dio, full-motion video, graphics, and text, in front of a live audience—yet still in a nonthreatening situation. Strategies such as using fewer overheads and more moving video, in- terspersing “talking heads” with videos of sites, using hands-on experi- ments, incorporating text and graphic art, and other guidelines for effective video production are also valuable (see Willis, 1993, for a synopsis of di: tance education strategies). Site facilitators, too, benefit from training programs which emphasize hands-on practice with the equipment they are expected to use. Sherry and Morse (1994) found that those who had participated in structured training programs felt comfortable using the equipment, were able to engage their students in the learning process, and had mastered classroom management in a high-tech classroom. MEDIA-BASED CHALLENGES Foreign language instruction presents special instructional challenges, not only because of the lack of immediate 2-way interaction that character- izes many distance education programs, but also because of the loss of vi- sual detail in videoconferences due to signal compression—especially de- tailed lip movements. This can be overcome by providing students with oral practice and feedback through telephone conversations with the in- structor, and by instructional strategies that encourage frequent student- teacher and teacher-student dialogue (Clifford, 1990; see also Bruce & Shade, 1994). Effective distance learning requires extensive preparation, as well as adapting traditional teaching strategies to a new learning environment which often lacks visual cues. Porter (1994) speaks of the triad consisting of the student, the teacher, and the site facilitator, all of whom must func- tion as a team. Students must quickly become aware of and comfortable with new patterns of communication, learn to manage their time, and take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers must enable students to es- tablish contact with them, as well as interact among themselves. Site faci tators can act as the on-site “eyes” and “ears” of the teacher, stimulating 348 Sherry interaction when distant students are hesitant to ask questions or partici- pate in discussions. Willis (1993) describes the strategies which are effective in distance learning: Namely, developing appropriate methods of feedback and rein- forcement, optimizing content and pace, adapting to different student learning styles, using case studies and examples which are relevant to the target audience, being concise, supplementing courseware with print infor- mation, and personalizing instruction. The variety of available media, too, presents a formidable research problem. One cannot compare print-based independent study courses, elec- tronic projects on the Internet, classroom BBS postings, audioconferences, and live, two-way interactive television, and expect that these comparisons will be valid. To add to this dilemma, media selection is often a question of media assignment. Teachers and site facilitators need training in those technologies which they are expected to use (Sherry & Morse, 1994). One important aspect of media selection is that though more than one medium may deliver the same message effectively, different media present different learning stimuli and accept different types of student responses. Willis (1992) stresses that teachers should analyze the strengths and weak- nesses of the various possible approaches to delivering instruction. He also suggests that teachers integrate a variety of delivery systems into their courses for interactivity and feedback. Grabowski (1991) states that media attributes may inherently determine how message design strategies are ul- timately implemented, especially regarding the manner in which they ei- ther facilitate or detract from the message (p. 205). McNabb (1994) notes that more experimental studies are needed in the area of media selection, where researchers can compare the effectiveness of different technologies which deliver similar content to similar audiences. It would be useful to analyze the content of a learning module, the goals of the students, teacher, and the school itself, implement some different tech- nologies, and determine what factors influence successful delivery. Inquiry Learning Inquiry learning is a new technique to many teachers. No longer is the teacher “the sage on the stage”—the deliverer of a fixed body of informa- tion; she becomes the facilitator of discovery learning for her students, through progressive discourse. Thus, even if a teacher is well-practiced and at ease with the equipment in the classroom, she still requires training in order to integrate new teaching strategies with the technology. Issues in Distance Learning 351 through student-initiated interactions and reflections, in real-time in class, and in delayed-time using an electronic bulletin board system (BBS). Pea’s (1994) distributed multimedia learning environments involve a dialectical opposition between the symbol-processing and constructivist viewpoints, to enable students to construct and transform knowledge through progressive discourse. Effective learning, however, requires both knowledge of learner styles and advance preparation on the part of the teacher and site facilitator. Teachers and site facilitators are better able to make curriculum decisions to suit the preferences of their students, such as grouping certain students productively for project work, or assigning particular students to individual research projects, if they can determine the students‘ prevalent learning modes. Site facilitators have the advantage of eye-to-eye contact and per- sonal contact with students in their classrooms, whereas studio teachers must often rely on televised images, telephone conversations, or electronic messaging for feedback on student preferences. If a teacher recognizes the existence of these alternate learning styles, and if he attempts to make a match between these modes and the content to be learned, then he can develop a local instructional theory. As with most distance learning situations, a localized theory has a greater prospect of success than a general instructional theory intended to function satisfacto- rily in variety of settings, with a variety of practitioners (Owens & Straton, 1980, p. 160). Factors Which Influence Success Sylvia Charp (1994) notes that with greater autonomy, student charac- teristics such as active listening and the ability to work independently in the absence of a live instructor become crucial for success. David Godfrey (personal communication, June 17, 1994) found that at most 80 percent of his former students at the University of Victoria may possess such charac- teristics. As a result, frequent, supportive teacher-student interaction and student-student networking take on increased importance for the remaining 20 percent, as well as facilitating the learning process for all students in- volved in the program. Bernt and Bugbee’s study (as cited in Schlosser & Anderson, 1994), examined two types of study strategies used by distance students: Primary, cognitive strategies, such as active listening, and secondary, affective strat- egies, such as ability to work independently of the instructor. As expected, 352 Sherry the researchers found that students who passed their courses differed sig- nificantly in primary strategies from those who failed: In testwiseness, con- centration, and time management skills. In contrast to Charp, they found little difference among them in secondary strategies: Active learning, dili- gence, and positive attitude. Instructors tend to blame the high dropout rate among post-secondary students on poor time management and procrastination. However, in a study of the effectiveness of university-level audioconference courses in Alaska, Sponder (1990) found that climate, geography, the efficiency of the postal system, the university support network, telecommunications facili- ties, students’ hearing problems, and other factors also come into play. Miscommunication between students and teachers, and lack of course rele- vance to students, may also have negative repercussions. Like Charp and Godfrey, Porter (1994) found that teacher mediation increases the completion rate for distance education courses. Neither can we assume that all students have sharpened their primary study skills to the same extent, nor that a positive attitude will make the difference be- tween success and failure. Students need support and direction to enable them to make the transition from traditional classroom environments to self-directed learning—particularly tools to help them monitor their progress and obtain timely feedback on their activities. Learner Support There are many ways of facilitating learner support. Studio teachers may visit the distant site, or students may take a trip to the studio. This has worked well in the Denver area where sites are few in number and not widely scattered. Audio and video teleconferences or interactive chats with mentors and other students are two real-time alternatives to site visitation, office hours or telephone calls. Interaction and support may also take place by delayed time. Students may E-mail or FAX questions to their instructors or fellow students, or post them on electronic BBSs. Teachers and peers, in turn, may respond at their convenience. Frequent teacher-student interaction enables the teach- ers to get to know the students better than if their only contact were via a televised image from a distant classroom. Porter‘s (1994) NDDL study incorporated insights from the site facili- tators concerning their students‘ experiences in adapting to distance educa- tion technologies. Students need guidance in putting information together, Issues in Distance Learning 353 reaching their tutors, and completing and submitting assignments. They also need tools to help them monitor their progress and obtain timely feed- back on their activities. Teachers also need support when they are learning about new technol- ogy, regardless of their level of classroom experience. As they begin their hands-on training with new technologies, some feel intimidated by the equipment, even in a nonthreatening environment. At this point, they need to be able to communicate with other teachers who have gone through this process themselves, and who are competent to advise them and serve as role models. For example, the University of South Florida has set up a mentoring system and an on-line discussion for participants in the tele- communications course. Athabasca University assigns ten students to one mentor in the Master of Distance Education program. The University of Wisconsin uses audioconference seminars to link instructors together. The University of British Columbia uses teleconferences with other students and tutors, as well as a telephone tutoring system. Georgia College has an electronic BBS with on-line resources, electronic conferencing, and a Teacher Clearinghouse for contacting other teachers interested in telecom- munications (Barron, Ivers, & Sherry, 1994). OPERATIONAL ISSUES These involve planning, administration, management, and economics, all of which are crucial for a successful distance education program. In particular, we must consider the roles of the teacher-facilitator-student tri- ad, training of teachers and staff, implementation and adoption of new technology, and policy issues such as facilities, cost, and scheduling. The Teacher-Facil tator-Student Triad In traditional education, teachers interact directly with their students. They prepare their own support materials, lecture notes, and tests, and are autonomous within their classroom. In contrast, distance learning teachers are not in direct classroom contact with their students. Communication is mediated not only by the technology, but also by a host of team partners which may include editors, designers, producers, technicians, media spe- cialists, local tutors, aides, site facilitators, and service providers. Since many people must collaborate to produce and disseminate quality distance 356 Sherry e technical problems; and e classroom dynamics. ACOT notes that classroom management, like technology expertise, is not a skill that is mastered once and for all by instructors in high-tech classrooms. They progress through a three-stage model of survival, mas- tery, and impact. It may take them at least two years to change their focus from being anxious about themselves, their new physical environment, equipment malfunctions, and student misbehavior, to anticipating prob- lems and developing alternate strategies, exploring software more aggres- sively, sharing ideas more freely, increasing student motivation and inter- est, and using technology to their advantage. As classroom contexts change, so do classroom management issues. Educational change takes time, a great deal of support, and peer network- ing and guidance. In general, teachers tend to focus on the increased work- load and drawbacks associated with an innovation before the benefits of change emerge and the innovation takes hold. Since their activities are closely related to those of the teacher, facilita- tors need similar training. However, some site facilitators perceive them- selves as end users, rather than designers, of distance instruction, so they feel that they require less emphasis on instructional systems design. Typi- cal comments of site facilitators about the teaching/learning experience are that they have benefited from e hands-on training and practice with assigned equipment; e a technical support team who can install, troubleshoot, and maintain classroom equipment and outside resources; e their own experiences anticipating equipment problems and working around them; and site visitation by studio teachers (Sherry & Morse, 1994). Technology Adoption Purchasing and maintaining appropriate equipment, and_ training teachers and facilitators to use it effectively, are necessary conditions, but are not sufficient in themselves to assure a school district of an excellent distance education program. There are other factors involved, many of which are affective rather than cognitive, such as user-friendliness and the ability to implement learner support. Ravitch (1993) notes that school or- ganization has been traditionally hierarchical and bureaucratic, whereas new technologies challenge this model. Issues in Distance Learning 357 Talab and Newhouse (1993) have found that many teachers are slow to incorporate new technologies into their classrooms because they are now seen as workers, rather than as instructional leaders or motivating forces within their classrooms. On the other hand, the technological innovations that have been adopted by teachers are those which solved problems that the teachers themselves identified as important, regardless of outside change agents, the school administration, or the opinions of non-teachers. Successful technological innovations must take into consideration the so- cial and political climate of the school, and must also reinforce the authori- ty of the teacher, rather than undermine it. The Office of Technology Assessment has found many powerful exam- ples of creative teachers using computers and other learning technologies to enhance and enrich their teaching. But first, four interrelated conditions must be met: e training in the skills needed to work with technology; e education providing vision and understanding of state-of-the-art devel- opments and applications; e support for experimentation and innovation; and e sufficient time for learning and practice. (US Congress, 1988, p. 16). Kell and others (1990) reinforced this view by naming five conditions that are conducive to change in the classroom: e a shared vision of teaching and learning; e leadership and support for new technology from school administrators; e organizational conditions allowing flexibility, time, and incentives to experiment with new instructional methods; © opportunities for communication, interaction, and peer support among teachers; and e training and personalized support over time for teachers. Holloway and Ohler (1991) found that a widely accepted technology is most often defined by a single characteristic: It makes a task rewarding for the user, where the “user” includes the student first, and the faculty second. If it does not make performance of a task rewarding, there is little motiva- tion to accept the technology. Conversely, if it simplifies or expedites ac- complishment of a goal, the probability of acceptance is high (p. 263). 358 Sherry Talab and Newhouse (1993) cite Bichelmeyer’s (1991) doctoral disser- tation. Bichelmeyer found that teachers and facilitators adopt technology innovations in a hierarchy of needs, with the most basic needs generally being fulfilled before the higher ones. From basic needs to higher level ones, these are: time and accessibility; dependability; ownership and authority; control (influence on design); and integration. Talab and Newhouse (1993) have found that those site facilitators who believe in their own abilities to design instruction using satellite technolo- gy, and who are willing and able to continue in their role as teaching part- ners, have successfully incorporated technology into their classrooms. These site facilitators: e are committed to the concept of equality of education that satellite- based education provides; e see opportunities for professional advancement through learning new skills and networking; e seem revitalized by the observation of a master teacher and exceptional instructional design; e realize that the program will not work without their participation; and e receive training in satellite-based instruction, either live or on tape, pro- fessional troubleshooting, and program feedback. Talab and Newhouse (1993) conclude that this success is based upon a match between the identified needs of the facilitators and the resources which are available to them: e they are given time and accessible equipment; e they are given assistance with equipment operation and troubleshooting; e they take part in training and program planning, and they control the grading, classroom management, and classroom activities; e they influence the program through feedback; and e they see the need for technology integration in order to take part in the program. Issues in Distance Learning 361 money and time must be allocated to deliver whatever courseware was promised. Schlosser and Anderson (1994) note that because funds come from the district, not from individual schools, distance education enterprises need to show a high degree of fiscal accountability. And, although prices for tech- nology are declining, taxpayers, school boards, and state legislatures, as well as both government and non-government funding agencies, expect to get the most for their funds. If money is short, then there are two options: Either downsize the project or extend the time frame. Holloway and Ohler (1991) note that many proposals are written without regard for the time it takes to resolve development and delivery problems. People also require resources and time to build an effective team, to start and maintain the instructional develop- ment project, to develop a plan for formative evaluation, and to obtain a commitment on compensation issues (p. 262). Once developed, the program schedule may not fit in with the school schedule. Programs may be too long, too short, or broadcast at the wrong time, resulting in a loss of real-time interactivity. One may always video- tape the program and show it later. However, it is important to realize that interactivity costs a lot more than a videotape. The cost/benefit of technology can vary significantly with the specific characteristics of schools and students. A successful program in one loca- tion may be less successful elsewhere. Jerry Pournelle (1994) notes that, while technology often improves educational quality, it is not necessarily cost-efficient. Citing a report by Danish researcher Hans Siggard Jensen of the Copenhagen Business School, Pournelle comments that teacher pro- ductivity can be raised only if the instructors behave as if they are in a vir- tual classroom (i.e., facilitate knowledge building among all distant sites simultaneously), rather than deal with point-to-point or one-on-one com- munication situations. He notes that, though videoconferencing is effective, many classrooms lack access to dedicated telephone lines and modems, much less several thousand dollars worth of software and proprietary hardware. In the formative evaluation of Vancouver’s New Directions in Dis- tance Learning pilot project, David Porter (1994) shifts the focus from the relative difference in the dollar cost per student to the increase in comple- tion/success rate of distance education programs by students. As completion and success rates improve, as students continue with their education, gain access to courses previously unavailable to them, and as they increase their chances of going on to post-secondary edu- 362 Sherry cation or workplace training, the benefits to the system and to society as a whole can begin to be factored in to the policy options and deci- sion making equations (p. 26). We will conclude with this insight by Holloway and Ohler (1991): Little happens of any magnitude without administration buy-in, and the best way to achieve that is to succeed on a small level first. Put most of your effort into finding the right people rather than the most exciting technology....Some teachers work well on camera, behind a microphone, or running a computer conference, and others do not. Find teachers who feel comfortable and work well with the media, then give them all of the technical support you can afford. Their job is to teach, not splice cords together or figure out why their conferencing software is misbehaving. The more transparent the media are to them, the better service they will deliver. This has a financial payoff too: The better a teacher works with media, the less necessary the expensive elements of. distance delivery coursework (like graphics and sophisticated editing) become to the creation of a quality product (p. 264). References Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow, Advanced Technology Group, Apple Com- puter, Inc. (1992, May). 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