Chemistry Basics: Charge, Molecules, Compounds, Bonds, and Organic, Lecture notes of Anatomy

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January 22 lecture Chapter 1 ● Integumentary System ○ Consists of skin ○ Protects ○ Covers the body ○ Forms a barrier between the internal and external environment ● Skeletal System ○ Attachment for muscles ○ Protection ○ Support ○ Movement ○ Storage of calcium (contract muscles) ● Muscular System ○ Support ○ Movement ● Nervous System ○ Communication with electrical systems ○ Brain spinal cord nerves ○ Special senses ○ Electro and chemical signals ● Endocrine System ○ Communication with chemical systems ○ Examples: thyroid adrenal thymus parathyroid gland ● Lymphatic System ○ Drains excess fluids from around the cells ○ (excess fluid leaks from the bloodstream constantly) ○ Participates in immunity ○ Elephant tysus (lookup) ● Circulatory System ○ Heart arteries veins and capillary beds ○ Transport (anything you can think of) ● Respiratory System ○ Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide ○ Gas exchange between the blood and environment ● Digestive System ○ Extracts nutrients from food ○ Controls the level of glucose in the blood ○ Eliminates waste ○ stomach/small intestine/large intestine/ liver/pancreas ○ Digestion of food ● Urinary System ○ Kidneys (filter nitrogenous waste) ■ That waste comes from the breakdown of proteins in the tissues ○ The water balance of the blood ○ Salt/pH balance of the blood ● Reproductive System ○ Reproduction ○ testicles/ovaries Chapter 2-Chemistry of Life ● Elements and Atoms ○ Element ■ Substances that cannot be broken down by normal chemical means ■ 92 naturally occurring elements ■ 6 most common in living systems are: ● C H N O P S ■ Elements are represented by letters ○ Atoms ■ The smallest part of an element that can enter into a chemical reaction ○ Subatomic Particles ■ Electrons ( in our purposes they have no mass) ● Orbit around the nucleus ● Have a negative electrical charge ■ Protons ● Have a weight of 1 atomic mass unit (AMU) ● Found in the nucleus of the atom ● Have a positive electrical charge ■ Neutrons ● Found in the nucleus of the atom ● A weight of 1 AMU ● Neutral charge ● Neutrons do not influence electrical charge ■ Atomic weight ● Number of protons +neutrons in an atom ■ Atomic number ● The number of protons. ■ Electrical charge ● Determined by comparing the number of protons and the number of electrons ○ Molecules and Compounds (want to be neutral and stable) ■ Mixture ● Two or more atoms in a nonspecific ratio ■ Compound ● Two or more atoms in a fixed ratio ■ Molecule ■ Information storage and transfer ● DNA: only found in the nucleus of a cell and contains the information to produce proteins ● RNA: It is produced in the nucleus but it is only active outside of the nucleus and is the template for protein production ● Test info ○ Recognize glycerol molecule ○ Differentiate between a straight chain, branched chain, and a ring structure in carbohydrates ● Proteins ○ Shape determines function ○ Short-term energy storage ○ Structural components cell ○ Functions are enzymes in a cell ○ Amino Acids are the building blocks (only 20 amino acids for the huge amount of proteins) ○ The sequence of amino acids determines the shape of proteins and the shape determines the function of the proteins ○ All amino acids have at least one structure in common ○ The simple structure is a central carbon atom connected to a hydrogen, carboxyl root, and amine group ○ The R(restricted) group is variable between the 20 amino acids ○ Amino acids can be chemically bonded with a covalent bond between the carboxyl group of 1 amino acid and the amine group of an adjacent amino acid. ○ Covalent bonds are given the specific name Peptide bond because it is so special ○ 4 levels of structure for protein ■ 1. Primary: linear sequence of amino acids and proteins (controlled by peptide bonds) ■ 2. Secondary: have 2 types of shapes (controlled by interactions between the R groups) Most proteins contain regions of either helix or sheets not functional at this level ● Helix ● Sheet ■ 3. Tertiary: Globular (interaction between the R groups) each protein of a specific type has the same globular structure small amount of proteins are functional at this level ■ 4. Quaternary: globular (separate tertiary structure bonds together to form 1 functional unit) ○ What type of forces can change the shape of proteins? ■ A change in pH ● will change the shape of proteins which is called denaturing the protein ● small changes in pH may not destroy the protein ● if the pH changes to normal the protein may be functional again large changes in pH destroy proteins ■ Change in temperature ● The functional range is above 98.6 ● Ex. cooking food January 29 lecture Cell Structure and Function (Chapter 3) ● The Plasma Membrane (The cell membrane) ● 4 macromolecules in the plasma membrane ○ Phospholipids(biggest component) ■ Each phospholipid is made up of a hydrophilic head group and a hydrophobic tail group ■ Individual phospholipids are added to the water the head groups head to the water, and tail groups turn away from the water, which spontaneously forms a five-layer ■ A phosphate group replaces one of the three fatty acids (reproduction) ○ Proteins (2nd biggest) ■ Embedded in the phospholipid by layer ■ They carry out all major functions in the membrane ■ They are responsible for transport across the membrane ○ Cholesterol ■ Embedded on both sides of the membrane ■ Controls the playability of the membrane ○ Glycolipids/Glycoproteins ■ Function is cell-to-cell communication ■ Only found on the outside of the cell ■ Carbohydrate chains attached to either a phospholipid or a protein ○ Fluid mosaic model ■ Describes the structure of the plasma membrane ■ Phospholipids can exchange places with their neighbors at any given time which means they cannot cross the membrane ■ Most cell membranes have the consistency of olive oil ■ Internal organelles surrounded by a membrane almost identical to a plasma membrane ● Nucleus ○ Contains the information needed to produce protein ○ Usually the largest organelle ○ Surrounded by a double membrane ○ Nuclear envelope ■ Double nonlayer bilayer ■ Contains pores ■ The pores are the size of a ribosome ○ Chromatin ■ DNA ■ Loosely packed in the nucleus ■ Contains the info needed to produce protein ■ Useful when the cell is actively producing protein ○ Chromosome ■ Chromatin that is tightly packed together ■ Same stuff ■ It is only useful when the cell is about to divide ○ Nucleolus ■ No membrane ■ Densely packed area of chromatin ■ Always present ■ And produces ribosomes ● The Cytoplasm ○ Everything within the plasma membrane ○ Sitosaul is the liquid portion of the cytoplasm ● Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis (not organelles) ○ Produced by the nucleolus ○ Transported across the nuclear envelope ○ Very small structure ○ Tend to attach to other organelles ○ Site of protein synthesis ○ Completely lack a membrane ○ Are the machinery needed to produce proteins but do not contain the info ● Endoplasmic Reticulum (Organelle) ○ Membrane-bound space ○ One of the largest organelles ○ Usually attached to the nuclear envelope ○ Function: internal transport ○ 2 types ■ Rough ER (ribosomes attached to it) occurs closely to the nucleus and serves as a point of attachment for ribosomes and transport of proteins within the cell ■ Smooth ER (no ribosomes attached) further away from the nucleus, internal transport, and production of lipids ○ Forms vacuoles ● Golgi Apparatus ○ Similar in appearance to the ER ○ Function: processing internal components ○ Or moving outside of the cell ○ Not attached to the nucleus ● Mitochondria ○ Powerhouse of the cell ○ Produces atp