Japanese International Cooperation Agency - Notes | INTL 422, Study notes of International Business

Download Japanese International Cooperation Agency - Notes | INTL 422 and more Study notes International Business in PDF only on Docsity! Japanese International Cooperation Agency Donor Agency Profle INTL422 Aid to Developing Countries Spring Quarter 2009 May 19th, 2008 Anastasia Brainich Sumiko Chambers Jay Gucker Kevin O’Brien 1 Table of Contents I. Goals, Mission, Philosophy ……………………………………………………….....…3 II. History……………………………………………………………………………..........8 III. Procedures/Implementation……………………………………………….................11 IV. Types of Aid……………………………………………………………..................….13 V. ODA Loans…………………………………………………………......……………...16 VI. Grants……………………………………………………………....…………………24 VII. Technical Cooperation…………………………………………..…………………...30 VIII. Multilateral Aid……………………………………………………………………..38 IX. Millennium Development Goals..................................................................................44 X. Conclusion…………………………………….....…………………………………….45 XI. Works Cited..................................................................................................................46 2 poverty. This approach is meant to deter potential confusion that is likely to be brought on by a variety of issues emerging simultaneously and overlapping with each other. The New JICA will thus strive to attain this goal by providing creative and effective support sensitive to ever-changing circumstances. Mission 1: Addressing the Global Agenda JICA acknowledges the negative effects of globalization: uneven wealth distribution, climate change, infectious diseases, economic crises and terrorism. Realizing the threat that these negative effects of globalization has on the stability of Japan, the international community and especially developing countries, JICA strives to make full use of it expertise and technology while working cohesively with the international community to address various globalization related issues. Mission 2: Reduction of poverty through equitable growth JICA strives to reduce poverty through expanding employment opportunities and public services such as education and health care, which in turn will lead to people being less susceptible to the effects of economic crisis, confict and disaster. The New JICA will provide support for capacity building, institutional improvements, and human resources development, with the goal being achieving poverty reduction through equitable growth. Mission 3: Improving Governance Improving governance is of vital importance for the stable economic growth of developing countries. JICA aims to provide support in improving the fundamental systems as needed by the state and public services and creating institutions and human resources necessary to manage those systems effectively. 5 Mission 4: Achieving human security The rise of globalization causes an increase in cross border threats such as civil strife, disasters, poverty, and other humanitarian issues. The New JICA places an emphasis on supporting and increasing the social and institutional capacity needed in order for the people to deal with threats themselves and to live a life of dignity. In order to achieve these four missions, JICA utilizes four main strategies. Strategy 1: Integrated Assistance JICA will take advantage of having the three forms of assistance (technical cooperation, ODA Loans and grant aid) integrated under one umbrella to offer a much more comprehensive support than before. JICA will also take advantage of their expanded infuence and differing types of approaches to address cross-country issues or even entire regions. Through integrated assistance, the New JICA will strive for international cooperation attainable now through its expanded size and scope. Strategy 2: Seamless Assistance Due to JICA’s current scale of operations, it is now able to provide seamless assistance for everything from natural disasters and armed confict to emergency aid and mid- to long-term development. JICA will provide aid and spur development that is best suited to the needs of that developing nation, with the main goal of sustainable long-term development. 6 Strategy 3: Promoting development partnerships New JICA aims to be a valuable partner of developing countries, accurately adjusting to their changing needs. This is attainable through the focus JICA puts on promoting self-help efforts. As one of the largest donor agencies in the world, JICA strives to further solidify their partnerships with other donor agencies around the world leading to a broader framework of developmental assistance throughout the global community. Strategy 4: Enhancing research and knowledge sharing JICA realizes that the global trends facing the developing countries are subject to rapid change. The agency pledges to put its extensive international experience to use and to be on the forefront of new developmental trends and techniques. JICA will also conduct surveys and research projects that are frmly grounded in actual feldwork. 7 1992-2007: New Guidelines for ODA This new role of leadership in development assistance marked a shift in priorities for Japan and JICA from physical capital and infrastructure to human capital, human rights and security concerns. This shift was marked by the 1991 ODA guidelines, which were later included in the ODA Charter of 1992. The ODA Charter established a new priority for human rights, democracy and basic security concerns such as food security. It stated four principles: (1) emphasis on environmental conservation considerations, (2) avoidance of ODA being allocated to military concerns, (3) more attention paid to recipient countries' military expenditures and use of weapons of mass destruction, (4) and emphasis on human rights, democratization and the development of free markets. The Charter also emphasized the importance of human capital development, through human resources, improvement of institutional capacities, and technical training (MoFA 1-5). 2008: New JICA In October 2008, JICA transitioned into New JICA, integrating Japan's technical cooperation, ODA loans and grant aid under one agency with a new focus on the three “S's”: Speed Up, Scale Up, Spread Out. This consolidation will help improve Japan's development assistance and improve coordination between the various aspects of Japanese ODA (JICA Annual Report 2008). 10 III. Procedures and Implementation When providing the funding for a project, whether it be in the form of grant aid or loans, JICA follows a project cycle of procedures in order to insure the success of the program. The standard procedures followed by JICA are as follows (JICA Evaluations 2007): 1. Identifcation: Projects meeting the key development needs of the targeted country are identifed. Initial analysis and study is conducted in preparation for future fnancing. 2. Preparation: Feasibility studies are carried out by JICA in order to examine the economic, social, technical, fnancial, and environmental feasibility of the proposed project. A master plan is then written up, that lays out the basis for project formation. 3. Appraisal and Ex-Ante Evaluation: JICA conducts an appraisal on the project and the request for ODA. Evaluation criteria are set at this stage to be used in subsequent assessments to measure the progress of the project. 4. Implementation (and supervision): During the implementation of the project, JICA monitors the progress in order to ensure the project is moving effciently. 5. Ex-Post Evaluation: With the completion of the project, JICA evaluates the success of the project and its ability to meet the goals of the original plan. Evaluation is conducted based on the “Five Evaluation Criteria” based on the recommendation of Development Assistance Committee (DAC) in 1991. The project is judged based on relevance, effciency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability. 6. Monitoring After Completion: In order to ensure effective operation and long-term sustainable benefts, JICA monitors the progress for an extended period after the completion of the project. 11 7. Feedback to Project Preparation and Appraisal: Findings of the monitoring, supervision, and evaluations are examined, and lessons learned are compiled to be considered when implementing similar projects in the future. Fig. 1 Project and Program Cycle (JICA Evaluation 2007) In 2002 JICA, in parallel with Rio Declaration on Environment and Development has revised its guidelines to better accommodate environmental and social considerations when implementing aid. In 2004 JICA had completed the new guidelines put forth, which has led to a more comprehensive view of the social and environmental welfare of donor receiving countries. JICA has worked with aid receiving countries to implement appropriate measures by fnancing the environmental impact assessments. 12 to reduce rural poverty in Bangladesh have resulted in improved infrastructure that allow for sustainable growth. Education: JICA is committed to the goal of universal primary education, as it is viewed as a means out of poverty. Furthermore JICA considers the promotion of higher education as a key component to development. For instance, in Afghanistan efforts are being taken to reduce illiteracy rates, which are as high as 65%. Health: JICA is looking to improve health care through encouraging economical and broadly available health care. JICA believes that in order to create an effcient health care system the infrastructure and human resources regarding health care must be better developed. Environment: The relationship between poverty and environmental degradation cyclically destabilizes the local environment on which people depend for their livelihood. JICA’s environmental policies focus on encouraging the sustainable use of resources, as well as conservation and restoration projects to protect and restore the environment. Agricultural and Rural Development: Agriculture is considered to be a key sector in developing countries’ economies. Growth in the agricultural sector and the establishing of a stable supply of food resources can encourage greater political and economic stability. In addition, boosting the agricultural industry can lead to poverty reduction in poor rural areas. Water Resources: Unprecedented population growth and unchecked economic development has magnifed the water-related problems of supply and pollution. JICA takes a comprehensive approach to solving these issues, with current water related projects in Cambodia, Barbados, Iran, Senegal and Tanzania. Much of JICA’s efforts center around building up the infrastructure to improve water supply, and training personnel in the feld of water works. 15 Transportation: JICA places an emphasis on economic development as a means to get people out of poverty. With that in mind, a developed transportation infrastructure is crucial to signifcant economic development. Currently in countries such as Nepal, Angola, Vietnam and Cambodia, JICA is not only implementing the infrastructure needed but also making sure to have a comprehensive plan in mind to deal with associated problems like traffc congestion, pollution and accidents. Economic Policy: Stable and effcient fscal and fnancial management is crucial if a developing country is hoping to attain economic development. JICA is currently involved in China, Malaysia and Mongolia striving to strengthen their fnancial systems through improving their administrative capacity. In recent years, JICA has focused their efforts on preventing another Asian fnancial crisis and increasing government revenues so that more resources can be allocated to things such as poverty reduction. In addition, JICA is also committed to promoting greater governance, peace building, social security, information and communication technologies, energy and natural resources, private sector development, fsheries, gender issues, urban development, and benefcial south-south cooperation. By focusing aid efforts into these issues JICA intends to promote sustainable development in a variety of arenas in accordance with the needs of each country. 16 V. Bilateral Loans Bilateral Loans, often called “Yen Loans”, make up 26.3% of JICA's ODA budget and are an important method to promoting sustainable development in developing countries (Furuoka 12). Japan's loans are primarily given to countries in Asia given the close economic and political ties but are not limited regionally, as JICA's loans extend to 95 different countries worldwide. As a result of the reforms to JICA in 2003, poverty reduction and peace building are increasingly being targeted for bilateral loans, in line with the UN Millennium Development Goals. JICA's approach to addressing poverty and regional stability is through medium-to-long-term perspectives, which lay the foundations for lasting sustainable growth. In order to ensure sustainability JICA will address the following areas: • Increased emphasis on country specifc viewpoints • Efforts on policy and system reform • Strengthening of aid cooperation and coordination • Stepped-up project monitoring • Enhanced evaluation JICA's bilateral loans can be divided into two categories. The frst is project loans, which make up the majority of ODA loans, and focus on economic and social development. These are often given to build plants and factories, as well as for economic and social infrastructure projects. Infrastructure projects range from the development of telecommunication and transportation systems to creating irrigation and other water systems. JICA also funds development projects through fnancial intermediary loans, in which a two-part scheme is used where the initial loan is given from the 17 to an ODA policy in which bilateral loans often invest in infrastructure projects in order to improve Indonesia's investment climate, which was damaged with the repercussions of the Asian Currency Crisis. In 2004 JICA's ODA to Indonesia included 43% of aid going to power, gas, and transportation systems. Fig. 2 (JICA 2007) Japanese infrastructure projects, such as the Renun Power Plant where construction began in 1993, have been emphasized not only in Indonesia, but around the East and South East Asian countries where economic ties are often very close due to economic partnership agreements. In the case of the Renun Power Plant, loan disbursement for the dam were given between 1991 and 1994 in three phases (IFID 5). Despite plans to have the Renun dam fully operational by the year 2000 in order to meet the growing electricity demands of North Sumatra, as of 2007 the dam has yet to be completed. The technical diffculties that have come about in the construction of the dam have received criticism, as the contract to build the dam was awarded out to Nippon Koei, a Japanese company, with the assistance of Japanese technical advisors (Malstrom 136). In re-accessing the successes and failures of projects like Renun Dam, JICA has responded to criticism regarding Japanese frms disproportionately receiving infrastructure projects and the lack of community participation in the development process. However, as Japanese ODA has 20 increasingly become untied aid, Japanese commercial interests have waned. In parallel with a rapid decrease in tied aid, JICA has also addressed Japan's previously perceived bias towards Japanese corporations when awarding contracts. Where as in 1986 Japanese frms procured 67% of loans, today Japanese frms obtain only 28.9% of the contracts from loans (INFID 8). Along with this shift JICA has increasingly given frms from developing countries, often from the loan receiving country, the contracts to development projects. In the case of the Renun project, the dam also led to the disenfranchisement of the local population, who were not properly compensated for the loss of land and water supply on which they relied upon. With the re-focusing of JICA in 2003, a shift has come in policy that encourages an emphasis on greater community participation in the development process (Sunaga 9). Through careful monitoring and evaluation, following the implementation of projects, JICA is able to learn and adapt from past successes and mistakes. The new JICA charter, as well as the subsequent re-organization of JICA, has led to a de- centralization of the decision making power. A shift away from strong government infuence towards giving more power to the implementing agencies and their feld offces in the aid receiving countries allows for greater participation of local governments and communities. The re- organization of Japanese ODA was furthered with a merging of JBIC and JICA into New JICA in 2008 (Sunaga 10). Before 2008 JBIC handled all loans given out through Japanese ODA. By putting all of Japanese ODA under one organization, JICA is expecting to increase synergy between the two departments. The new JICA charter states at the beginning of its frst section that Japanese ODA's primary objective is the 'peace and development of the international community'. The new charter also sees a 21 shift in priorities to better account for the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals and in particular the goal of poverty reduction. In regards to this, efforts have been made to channel more infrastructure projects into various social sectors, such as agricultural development. As 75% of those living in poverty in developing countries reside in rural areas, JICA views rural development, through development of the agricultural sector, increased employment opportunities, and improving the local infrastructure, as an important aspect to reducing poverty (JBIC 2005). When determining where to fnance projects, JICA and in particular JBIC assess the organizational capacity of the receiving countries and the targeted region. In order for a project to be successful in the long run organizational capacity, through training programs, accountability to stakeholders, and clearly defned objectives with oversight monitoring, must bring about an effcient and effective system. When considering case studies done on rural electrifcation projects in Bangladesh the effectiveness of the projects was defned by the level of organizational capacity available. In Bangladesh a few organizations distribute the power in the different regions of the country. The Rural Electrifcation Board is largely considered to perform well by JICA, effciently distributing power to the local region through a well-trained and organized staff. On the other hand the Power Development Board and Dhaka Electricity Supply Authority, which are often managed in more traditional ways, are considered to be poor performers. The difference in the effciency of regional distribution is largely viewed as an organizational one (JBIC 2005). When assessing these organization's capacity, the expertise of staff members, specifcity in responsibility, and incentives for effciency such as outside competition and a shared project goals were considered. JICA considers this crucial in creating sustainable projects, which will allow the aid receiving countries to 22 • Food Aid • Grant Assistance for Underprivileged Farmers Fig. 1 shows how JICA’s grant aid had been broken down in the past and what percentage of that aid went to each category. In 2006 fscal year, JICA allotted 11.9% to health and medical care, 16.4% to education and research, 20.9% to living conditions and the environment, 17.5% to agriculture, forestry and fsheries, 25.7% to transport and communication, with 7.6% in an assemblage of other projects (JICA 2007). In addition, 2007 saw the addition of Aid for Poverty Reduction Strategy Assistance to JICA’s grant aid element. Fig. 1 Aid distribution (JICA 2007) Criteria for Grant Aid Distribution In order to qualify for grant aid, a country must submit a formal request satisfying a set of criteria set by JICA. The grant would be given to a country that demonstrates diffculty carrying out the project otherwise, with no outside assistance, and when a loan does not seem suitable in a given instance. The project should have high public demand and that the management system is in place to implement the project effciently. Historically, JICA has never supported any military activities and thus the donor receiving country must demonstrate that there is no risk of the grant aid to be 25 channeled into military activities or equipment. The grant should mostly go to the stability of a democratic regime and the improvement of welfare (Hirata 311). JICA’s operations Fisheries As shown above, JICA’s grant aid is distributed in a variety of diverse sectors, one of which is aid to fsheries. Japan itself is one of the largest distant fshing nations in the Pacifc region and throughout the history has extended its stewardship to the surrounding countries. Subsequently, JICA became one of the largest grant aid donors to 11 Pacifc island countries including Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Palau and Tuvalu (Maclellan et al. 20). The establishment of the original grant aid to fsheries in that region was to help adjust to the creation of EEZs under the UN Law of the Sea Convention. In the course of JICA’s grant aid to fsheries some criticism has been leveled in regard to this aid, pointing out that the intent of the grants was to tie access and aid together. As an example, it was pointed out that the island nation of Nauru has started receiving aid only once an access agreement between Japan and Nauru has been signed in 1994 (25). 26 Fig. 2 (JICA 2007) Yet even the critics have recognized the importance of grant aid to fsheries that has been provided by JICA so far. And as GreenPeace acknowledged, while grant aid does provide incentive for ensuring good relations with Japan, such aid does not “dictate or overly infuence” the policies of the grant receiving nations in the fsheries or marine sector (25). In addition, in compliance with the agency’s commitment to MDGs, JICA has established a special Small Island Developing States (SIDS) fund with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) worth US $1.5 million (JICA MDGs 2006). JICA recognizes that small island nations are especially vulnerable to the changes in the global environment and that fshery resources sometimes constitute the bulk part of the economy and the dietary needs of such nations. Overfshing and environmental disruption thus puts these nations at a particularly high risk of depleting their resources. To this effect, JICA has been providing support in order to maintain sustainable fshing 27 small grants (less than 100,000USD) to NGOs (NGO Desk). Grant such as this was recognized for its ability to respond to the needs of the local people swiftly. Grant Aid for Grassroots Projects is well accepted among NGOs and its budget increased more than ten-fold from ¥300 million (US$2.30 million) in 1989 to ¥5 billion (US$41.66 million) in 1997 (Kitamura 28). One of the more recent addition to JICA’s operations is Japanese Cultural Grant Aid (JCGA) which combined the former CGA (Cultural Grant Aid) and GACH (Grant Assistance for Cultural Heritage) programs in 2005 to form a program fund with a larger scope of operation, whereby up to ¥300 million per project can be granted to cover the procurement cost of equipment to be used for various cultural and higher educational activities, such as equipment for educational facilities, equipment for the preservation of cultural assets (excavating equipment, survey equipment), equipment for cultural activities, and sports and musical equipment. The equipment provided for developing countries under this scheme is playing an important role in the preservation of cultural articles and cultural heritage, the implementation of various projects at theaters, and museums, and the promotion of education and research activities. Since the launch of CGA in 1975, Japan granted a total of ¥51.8 billion for 1,257 projects in 126 countries/areas under this scheme (Embassy of Japan 2007). In the Philippines alone, 44 projects amounting to about ¥1857.8 million have already been implemented. The subject countries of the scheme are developing countries of which the GNP per capita is not more that US$5,294 as of 2005 (Embassy of Japan 2007). 30 VII. Technical Cooperation Technical cooperation is a large part of Japanese ODA, and aims at increasing institutional capacity in the aid-recipient countries. It is part of a “soft aid” approach to ODA and development, in which countries aim to increase local capacity and engage in program aid, with end results often less clearly obtained than the “hard aid” infrastructure projects of the past. While this transition from infrastructure such as bridges and facilities to institutional support such as technical cooperation and training has challenged Japan, especially in the new focus on regional experts and locally defned needs, it has opened up new opportunities for Japan to aid evolving countries. Often, this capacity enhancement comes through transfer of Japanese technology applicable to the needs of the recipient country, or through technical support provided by Japanese experts (Fujisaki 519). Technical cooperation can be classifed into 5 categories: training programs hosted by Japan, the sending of Japanese experts and volunteers abroad, disaster relief teams dispatched by Japan, technical cooperation projects, and development studies funded by JICA (Furuoka 8). Training is offered by JICA in a number of technical and professional felds to residents of evolving countries. Since 1954, JICA has trained over 275,000 participants. They are hosted in Japan while they undergo professional training meant to contribute to the development of human resources within their home country and to encourage mutual friendship and understanding between the home country and Japan. JICA also runs training programs in developing countries, but Japan is preferred due to access of technology that may not be present in the developing country yet and to showcase the Japanese development experience (JICA Technical Assistance 2007). 31 Fig. 1 Acceptance of Trainees by Region (Furuoka 9) These training programs are especially important with JICA's new focus on human security and capacity building in developing countries. Starting in the 1980s, JICA began to transition away from methods such as direct technology transfer and interaction with business individuals and organizations, choosing to focus on institutional-level programs designed to have a long-term impact on the human security in that country. However, human resource development remains an important aspect of its mid-term policy for ODA allocation (Michio 38). One criticism of JICA training programs is their emphasis on individual and organization-level transfer projects, rather than institutional-level programs, and how this refects the traditional emphasis on technical cooperation and technology transfer within Japanese foreign assistance programs. However, technical cooperation and training of individuals can assist aspects of capacity development programs by helping to construct the necessary infrastructure for mid and long-term viability. 32 efforts such as the Training Services Enhancement Project for Rural Life Improvement (TSEP- RLI) (Scheyvens 93-94). Case Study: Jamaica In 1998 JICA began a 5-year project partnering with the Jamaican Ministry of Health to help prevent the spread of chronic lifestyle diseases (CLD) such as diabetes and hypertension within the Jamaican community (Coombs 24). The project aimed to achieve this through enhancement of local disease prevention capabilities, through several methods. These methods included technical transfer with the help of Japanese experts, participation in Japan-hosted training programs by local healthcare professionals, donation of needed equipment and materials by Japan, and the subsidization of local operational costs by the Japanese government. Through this project, Jamaica's Manchester, St. Elizabeth and Clarendon parishes saw improvements in the organizational and human resource capacity of local health authorities, as well as improvements in health care facilities including new availability of free health check ups (Coombs 30). Clinics increased their ability to advocate CLD prevention and awareness in the local community, and saw over 5,000 new clients in relation to the CLD prevention program (Coombs 32). 35 Fig. 2 Marine Sanctuary, Philippines Case Study: TSEP-RLI JICA partnered with the Agricultural Training Institute of the Philippines Department of Agriculture, discussing with stakeholders such as local participants what form the TSEP-RLI project should take and where it should be held. After targeting fve villages for development schemes, the project planners met with the local villages and held workshops to identify their most pressing needs (Scheyvens 93). After the needs were defned and one or two selected for implementation, JICA held training programs to teach villagers how to implement and manage these projects. The village-based workshops meant that the projects were appropriate for the area and that the villages took ownership of the project, since it was based on their ideas and they were in charge of the fnal implementation (Scheyvens 95). One example of these village-led projects was the creation of a marine sanctuary, built with local technology such as bamboo poles and foats, and recycled technology such as a reef built from old car tires. 36 Another argument is that aid is tied or focused too much by private corporations, who work with the government in identifying areas of need. This argument was somewhat valid in the earlier days of JICA and Japanese ODA, when the government sought the cooperation and involvement of corporations in forming partnerships with local business individuals and corporations to implement development schemes. After the formation of the ODA Charter in 1992, however, JICA shifted its focus from physical capacity to human capacity, removing much of the tied aid and focusing on human resource development rather than the building of facilities. By 1993, tied aid formed only 11% of Japan's total bilateral ODA (Fujisaki 522). With the formation of the new JICA as a separate agency and the consolidation of the aid process, this transition will be continued in order to focus on individuals and basic human needs. 37 Fig 1 (JICA 2007) JICA/UNDP Joint Evaluation: Poverty in Tanzania: Kilimanjaro Region Project Description and Intention: JICA intended a collaboration with the UNDP to study in the feld the perception and effect of poverty on the individual, village, and regional level. The TICAD II had determined poverty reduction to be of the utmost priority in Africa; JICA concluded it would, as an organization, beneft from participation with advantage gained by lessons learned in the feld. The joint project that resulted was carried out between January 1993 and January 2000. The Tanzanian government, after recognizing deforestation resulting from such natural causes as drought, human destruction of the environment through cutting of trees for frewood, clear-cutting for agriculture, and over-grazing, initially requested JICA’s help in stemming the process. JICA was asked to assist in reforestation – tree farms, plantations and the like – and to educate local 40 communities in methods of cultivation preferable to those formerly employed. Those who would be both involved in, and beneft from assistance were many: bee keepers, tourism workers, villagers and their livestock, and various government Ministries including those responsible for clean water and natural resources, among others. The project was to take into account attitudes among communities in a variety of locales, gender differences in perception of what constitutes poverty, individual mind-sets regarding seminars and training to alleviate poverty, and willingness to participate in experimental programs involving unfamiliar ways of responding to environmental crises that engender poverty (Chapter 2:2). A participatory methodology for proceeding toward solutions was identifed as the most promising. Such would take into account local people’s needs and concerns rather than imposing from without the Industrialized World’s presumed solutions. Focus groups of selected villagers were arranged, project possibilities were presented, votes (yay or nay) were taken, discussions of what comes next were facilitated, and the facilitator remained in situ overnight or into the following week to observe the response of the general community. Of concern to JICA were such issues as: • Who would beneft from the intervention? • If some benefted, would others suffer? • How would intervention change the socioeconomic face of the community? • How would success or failure of the project be evaluated? • Would villagers be willing to discuss the project’s impact on their relative wealth? (Chapter 2:3) 41 JICA’s Methodology “Participant/Observer” is the term used by JICA to describe its function within the study. This is a default description long-used by anthropologists who conduct feld studies, having learned the impossibility of observing without also affecting the subject under observation. JICA, calling itself P/A, tacitly acknowledges its own presence, and thus the potential skewing – through simple presence, language diffculties (interpretation rather than strict translation), and misreading of its own collected data. Rather than asking, “Are you poor?” thereby directing issues to individuals, facilitators attempted to promote discussions in the 3rd person, thereby freeing discussants from revealing information deemed by them to be too personal (Chapter 2:4). Men and women were given opportunities to participate in discussions singly, separated by gender, by age group, by village, and all together. Key words and concepts were identifed and differentiated among the various participants. Evaluations were conducted at the end of the entire 7 year study, and are still ongoing. JICA had modifed its methodologies according to known outcomes. Critique: As long as JICA continues to be willing to modify its methodologies according to the requirements of particular projects, its assistance will be welcomed. But to undertake such a study each time a new project is proposed would be prohibitively expensive, and perhaps too slow in execution to beneft those in need. 42 X. Conclusion As Japan has stepped into the role as one of the leading worldwide donor agencies it has benefted greatly from past lessons learned. In the post-war period from 1945 to 1953, Japan received massive amounts of aid, which helped JICA after it was founded to understand the importance of paying back the international community liberally with their own aid. Since then, Japan has become one of the leading aid donors in the world and embracing the responsibility that comes with it. With the revision of the ODA Charter in 2003 and its implementation in Oct. 2008, JICA’s goals were brought even more in line with Millennium Development Goals established in 2000. Due to this realignment, JICA now further emphasizes community participation and the promotion of both human and environmental welfare. 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